Media Codex

50 basic broadcasting terms you must know

2024-02-13T06:48:24.987000Z

List of 50 important terms in the domain of television broadcasting along with their definitions. Also find the names of important authorities and regulations related to television broadcasting in India at the end of this list.

1. ABC: The American Broadcasting Company, a major television network in the United States.

2. Ad: A commercial advertising a program, station, or network.

3. Audience: The number of people watching a program or channel.

4. Bitrate: The amount of data transmitted per second.

5. Broadcast: The simultaneous transmission of messages to multiple recipients.

6. Cable TV: A television distribution system that uses cables to transmit TV signals to subscribers.

7. Channel: A specific frequency or band of frequencies used for broadcasting.

8. Commercial: An advertisement aired during a program.

9. Content: The material that is broadcasted on television.

10. Digital TV: A television broadcasting system that uses digital signals instead of analog signals.

11. Distribution: The process of delivering content to viewers.

12. DVR: Digital Video Recorder, a device that records television programs for later viewing.

13. EPG: Electronic Program Guide, a digital guide that displays information about television programs.

14. Frequency: The number of times a wave oscillates per second.

15. HD: High Definition, a television broadcasting system that provides a higher resolution than standard definition.

16. IPTV: Internet Protocol Television, a television broadcasting system that uses the internet to transmit TV signals.

17. Local news: News that covers events and stories in a specific geographic area.

18. Network: A group of television stations that share programming.

19. News: Information about current events.

20. On-demand: A service that allows viewers to watch content whenever they want.

21. Over-the-air: A television broadcasting system that uses radio waves to transmit TV signals.

22. Pay-per-view: A service that allows viewers to watch content for a fee.

23. Program: A specific television show or series.

24. Rating: The size of TV audience expressed as a percentage of the total potential audience.

25. Region: An area or territory that has variations in programming.

26. Reel: A spool of tape or film.

27. ROS: Run-of-station, an instruction to broadcast a commercial anytime during a station's schedule.

28. Satellite TV: A television distribution system whereby TV signals are transmitted via satellite to TV sets of subscribers in a community or locality.

29. Schedule: A list of consecutive programs.

30. Season: A period of time during which a television program is broadcasted.

31. Signal: The transmission of information through a medium such as airwaves or cables.

32. Sponsorship: The practice of paying for a program or event in exchange for advertising.

33. Station: A television or radio broadcasting facility.

34. Streaming: The process of transmitting video or audio content over the internet.

35. Subtitle: Text that appears on the screen to translate dialogue or provide additional information.

36. Syndication: The practice of selling the rights to broadcast a program to multiple stations.

37. Telecast: The broadcast of a program on television.

38. Time slot: A specific time during which a program is broadcasted.

39. Transmission: The process of sending a signal from a broadcasting station to a receiver.

40. TV: Television, a system for transmitting and receiving visual images and sound.

41. VOD: Video on Demand, a service that allows viewers to watch content whenever they want.

42. Viewer: A person who watches television.

43. Virtual reality: A technology that creates a simulated environment for viewers.

44. Weather report: Information about current and future weather conditions.

45. Webcast: A live or recorded broadcast that is transmitted over the internet.

46. Web series: A series of episodes that are released online.

47. Zoom: A camera technique that changes the focal length of the lens to make the subject appear closer or further away.

48. Aspect ratio: The ratio of the width to the height of a television screen.

49. Closed captioning: Text that appears on the screen to provide a transcription of dialogue for viewers who are deaf or hard of hearing.

50. Commercial break: A pause in programming during which commercials are aired.

For more, check out Television Broadcasting: Glossary

Important authorities and regulations related to television broadcasting in India

Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (MIB): The ministry responsible for regulating and governing the media and entertainment sector in India. It oversees the implementation of broadcasting regulations and policies.
Prasar Bharati: An autonomous public service broadcaster that operates Doordarshan (Indian public service broadcaster) and All India Radio. It is governed by the Prasar Bharati Act, 1990.
Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI): The regulatory body that oversees the telecommunications and broadcasting sectors in India. TRAI regulates tariffs payable to subscribers of television channels and service providers.
Cable Networks Act, 1995: Legislation that governs the operation and regulation of cable television networks in India. It provides guidelines for the distribution and transmission of television channels through cable networks.
Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995: An act that regulates the operation and content of cable television networks in India. It sets guidelines for the carriage and transmission of television channels and includes provisions for program and advertisement codes.
Broadcasting Services Regulation Bill, 2007: A bill that aimed to regulate broadcasting services in India. It addressed issues related to entry of certain entities into broadcasting and distribution activities.
Programme and Advertisement Code: Prescribed under the Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995 and Rules framed thereunder, this code mandates broadcasters to follow guidelines regarding program content and advertisements.
NTO 2020 (New Tariff Order 2020) refers to the regulatory framework introduced by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) in 2020 to govern the pricing and packaging of television channels in India. The implementation of NTO 2020 brought significant changes and disruptions to the broadcast industry. It aimed to provide more transparency and choice to consumers by allowing them to select and pay for individual channels or bouquets of channels. However, it also led to challenges and debates within the industry regarding pricing, packaging, and the impact on broadcasters, distributors, and consumers. The introduction of NTO 2020 has been a significant development in the Indian broadcasting industry and has had a lasting impact on the way television channels are priced and distributed.
BARC (Broadcast Audience Research Council) is an industry body in India that is responsible for providing television audience measurement. It is the world's largest television measurement science industry body. BARC collects data from households and analyzes it to rate various channels and shows based on their TRP (Television Rating Points). They use audio watermarking before broadcast and install BAR-O meters in households to record viewing details. These BAR-O meters are periodically inspected to ensure proper functioning. BARC India was founded in 2010 as a joint industry body by organizations representing Indian broadcasters, advertisers, and advertising and media agencies. It currently measures TV viewing habits of 210 million TV households in India using a sample panel of over 50,000 homes. BARC India's Broadcast India Survey is an annual research study that collects specific details of households and individuals to estimate TV audience characteristics. The data and insights generated by BARC India assist in making efficient media spends and content decisions in the television sector.

References:

Britannica. (2023, June 13). Broadcasting | Definition, History, Types, Systems, Examples, & Facts. https://www.britannica.com/technology/broadcasting
Bunny Studio. (2021, March 26). Broadcasting Terms: The Basics You Need to Know. https://bunnystudio.com/blog/broadcasting-terms-the-basics-you-need-to-know/
Elumba-Pableo, C. S. (2016, November 12). Common Broadcasting Terms in Radio & TV. https://www.slideshare.net/CheldhayeDay/common-broadcasting-terms-in-radio-tv
ProQuest. (2016). Perspective: Emerging Trends in Broadcasting. ProQuest. https://www.proquest.com/trade-journals/perspective-emerging-trends-broadcasting/docview/1736923952/se-2
Wikipedia. (n.d.). Glossary of broadcasting terms. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_broadcasting_terms
YouTube. (2020, June 12). Broadcasting Terms The Basics You Need To Know. https://youtube.com/watch?v=HR-FqRLDm28

Current trends in television broadcasting

2024-03-25T09:55:47.361000Z

Television broadcasting has undergone significant changes in recent years, with the rise of digital platforms and the shift in audience preferences. The broadcasting industry has had to adapt to these changes to remain relevant and competitive.

Global Trends

Expansion into OTT Delivery Systems

One of the most significant trends in television broadcasting is the expansion into over-the-top (OTT) delivery systems. OTT refers to the delivery of video content over the internet, bypassing traditional cable and satellite providers. This trend has been driven by the increasing popularity of streaming services such as Netflix, Amazon Prime Video, and Disney+. The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the growth of OTT services, and the trend is expected to continue in the post-pandemic world. According to a report by IBM, OTT delivery systems are expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 14.3% between 2021 and 2026.
Content Diversification

In the global context, television broadcasters are expanding their content offerings to cater to diverse audience preferences. This includes producing original scripted series, documentaries, reality shows, and live events. By diversifying their content, broadcasters aim to attract and retain viewers across different demographics and interests.
Digital-First Approach

Many broadcasters worldwide have adopted a digital-first approach, producing content specifically for online platforms and streaming services. With the rise of over-the-top (OTT) platforms, broadcasters are investing in high-quality digital content to reach audiences beyond traditional television viewership. This strategy allows for greater flexibility and enables broadcasters to engage with younger, tech-savvy audiences.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) Technology

Another trend that is shaping the future of television broadcasting is the use of AI technology. AI is being used to improve the quality of content, personalize recommendations, and automate tasks such as closed captioning and video editing. Personalization not only enhances the viewing experience but also helps broadcasters to retain viewers. AI-powered chatbots are also being used to engage with viewers and provide customer support.
Storytelling and production

The advancement of technology has greatly influenced the way stories are told on television. In the past, television was limited to a single screen, but now, with the emergence of multiple platforms, storytelling can happen across various screens at the same time. Today, the main focus is on one primary screen, while other devices like tablets or mobile phones play supporting roles. However, in the future, all these screens will work seamlessly together, creating a unified viewing experience. This evolution of multiple platforms will impact every aspect of the television industry, from content creation and preparation to sales, marketing, and distribution. The omni-platform environment also affects the way stories unfold, as viewers now expect to have more control and interaction. Viewers want to be a part of the storytelling experience. To meet these expectations, content producers will need to convince both the creative and IT communities of the benefits of choice-based stories and the technical scalability and cost-effectiveness of implementing them. It's an exciting time where technology is reshaping how stories are told and how viewers engage with content.
Virtual and augmented reality

Virtual and augmented reality are transforming the way we consume television content. With the help of VR and AR, viewers can immerse themselves in the content and experience it in a more engaging way. The use of VR and AR is still in its early stages, but the trend is expected to grow in the coming years.
Cybersecurity

As the broadcasting industry becomes increasingly digital, cybersecurity has become a critical concern. Broadcast media companies are investing in cybersecurity measures to protect their content and infrastructure from cyber threats.

India Perspective

India swiftly embraced the evolving trends in television broadcasting, driven by factors such as technological advancements, changing viewer preferences, and the growing influence of digital platforms. The country's vast population, linguistic diversity, and cultural richness created a fertile ground for broadcasters to cater to specific regional tastes and preferences. India witnessed a surge in regional content production and localization efforts, recognizing the importance of connecting with audiences in their own languages.

Digital Transformation and Streaming Services

In India, the television industry is undergoing a digital transformation. Traditional broadcasters are expanding their presence on digital platforms, launching their streaming services, and partnering with OTT platforms to reach online audiences. This allows viewers to access their favorite shows and channels through mobile apps and websites, providing convenience and flexibility in consumption.
Rise of Regional Content

One of the most significant trends in television broadcasting in India is the rise of regional content. Regional language channels are gaining popularity, and broadcasters are investing in producing content in regional languages. According to a report by The Business Research Company, the Indian television broadcasting market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 10.6% between 2021 and 2025, driven by the demand for regional content.
Multi-Screen Viewing

With the proliferation of smartphones and tablets, multi-screen viewing has become a significant trend in India. Viewers are increasingly consuming television content on their personal devices, along with traditional TV sets. Broadcasters are adapting to this trend by offering mobile apps and online streaming options, enabling viewers to access content on the go
Mobile Streaming

Mobile streaming is another trend that is shaping the future of television broadcasting in India. With the increasing penetration of smartphones and affordable data plans, viewers are increasingly consuming content on their mobile devices. Broadcasters are investing in mobile-friendly content and platforms to cater to this growing audience.
Hybrid Business Models

Another trend that is emerging in the Indian television broadcasting industry is the adoption of hybrid business models. Broadcasters are exploring new revenue streams, such as subscription-based models and advertising-supported models.

Challenges posed by technological changes

On one side, we see significant changes driven by the rise of digital platforms and the shift in audience preferences. On the other side, these technological changes in the television industry have brought about several challenges and problems. Here are some of the key challenges:

Transition to OTT delivery systems: The expansion into over-the-top (OTT) delivery systems has disrupted traditional broadcasting models. While OTT platforms offer greater flexibility and convenience for viewers, traditional broadcasters are facing challenges in adapting to this new landscape. They need to invest in infrastructure and content delivery systems to compete with OTT providers.
Monetization and revenue models: The shift towards digital platforms has posed challenges in terms of monetization and revenue generation. Advertisers are shifting their budgets towards digital advertising, and traditional broadcasters are facing the challenge of finding new ways to generate revenue and sustain their business models.
Content piracy and copyright infringement: With the rise of digital platforms, content piracy and copyright infringement have become major challenges for the television industry. Illegal streaming websites and unauthorized distribution of content have resulted in revenue loss for broadcasters and content creators. Protecting intellectual property rights and combating piracy has become a priority for the industry.
Fragmentation of audiences: The proliferation of niche channels and the availability of a wide range of content options have led to the fragmentation of audiences. Viewers now have more choices and preferences, making it challenging for broadcasters to capture and retain a large audience share. Broadcasters need to invest in content curation and personalization to cater to the diverse interests of viewers.
Technological infrastructure and investment: The rapid technological advancements in the television industry require significant investment in infrastructure and technology. Broadcasters need to upgrade their equipment, systems, and networks to keep up with the evolving technological landscape. This can be a challenge, especially for smaller broadcasters with limited resources.
Regulatory challenges: The changing technological landscape has also posed regulatory challenges for the television industry. Governments and regulatory bodies are grappling with issues such as content regulation, licensing, and ensuring fair competition in the digital space. Balancing the need for innovation and consumer protection is a complex task for regulators.

On May 2, 2023, members of the Writers Guild of America (WGA) went on strike, calling for reforms in their payment, with a focus on residuals from streaming platforms. The strike has led to a halt in popular late-night TV shows and has delayed the production of new seasons of scripted shows.

From the transition to OTT delivery systems to content piracy and regulatory challenges, broadcasters and content creators are facing a rapidly evolving landscape. Adapting to these challenges and finding innovative solutions will be crucial for the future success of the television industry.

References:

Dutta, S. (2015). Television Broadcasting in India - Empirical Growth analysis since 1959. Publishing India Group.
IBEF. (2023, June 15). Media and Entertainment Industry in India, Indian Media Industry.
India Brand Equity Foundation. https://www.ibef.org/industry/media-entertainment-india
IBM. (2023, March 21). 5 Trends Changing Broadcasting in 2023 | The Future of Broadcast TV | IBM. https://www.ibm.com/weather/industries/broadcast-media/trends-that-will-change-broadcasting
OECD. (2013). TV and broadcasting. OECD. https://www.oecd.org/daf/competition/TV-and-broadcasting2013.pdf
ProQuest. (2016). Perspective: Emerging Trends in Broadcasting. ProQuest. https://www.proquest.com/trade-journals/perspective-emerging-trends-broadcasting/docview/1736923952/se-2
The Business Research Company. (2021). Global Television Broadcasting Opportunities And Strategies Market Report. The Business Research Company. https://www.thebusinessresearchcompany.com/report/television-broadcasting-global-market

Electronic news gathering, live broadcasts and live streaming

2024-03-25T09:56:04.658000Z

Electronic News Gathering (ENG) is a broadcasting technique that involves the use of portable electronic devices, such as cameras and microphones, to capture and transmit live events. ENG has revolutionized the way news is reported and has contributed significantly to live broadcasting by enabling news reporters and crews to cover events and transmit footage from any location with ease. Here are some ways in which ENG has contributed to live broadcasting:

Mobility: ENG equipment, such as portable cameras, microphones, and satellite uplink systems, allows news crews to move freely and quickly to various locations. This mobility enables them to cover breaking news, live events, and on-the-spot reporting, ensuring timely and dynamic coverage.
Real-time Transmission: ENG equipment allows for the transmission of news content in real-time. This means that viewers can receive live updates and footage as events unfold, providing a sense of immediacy and authenticity to the broadcast.
High-Quality Video: ENG cameras are designed to capture high-quality video, even in challenging conditions. They are equipped with advanced features like zoom, image stabilization, and low-light capabilities, ensuring that the broadcasted content is clear and visually appealing.
Improved Production Efficiency: ENG has streamlined the news production process. Previously, news stories were recorded on film and had to be processed before airing. With ENG, news crews can capture, edit, and transmit footage digitally, reducing production time and allowing for quick turnaround of news stories.

In short, a live broadcast refers to the real-time transmission of audio and video content to viewers as the event is taking place. It involves capturing footage at the location, encoding it, and transmitting it to a broadcast station or satellite uplink for immediate distribution to viewers.

The planning and execution of a live broadcast involve several steps:

Pre-production Planning: This phase involves determining the purpose and scope of the live broadcast, identifying the target audience, and establishing technical requirements. It includes logistics planning, such as securing necessary permissions, arranging equipment, and establishing communication channels.
Crew and Equipment Setup: The news crew, including reporters, camera operators, audio technicians, and producers, gathers at the location. ENG equipment, such as cameras, microphones, lights, and satellite uplink systems, is set up and tested for proper functionality.
Signal Acquisition: The ENG crew captures live footage of the event using cameras and audio equipment. They ensure that the video and audio signals are of high quality and properly synchronized.
Signal Encoding and Transmission: The captured video and audio signals are encoded into a compatible format for transmission. The signals are then sent through a transmission medium, such as satellite uplink systems, microwave links, or fiber-optic cables, to the broadcast station or satellite for distribution.
Studio Control and Broadcasting: At the broadcast station, the received signals are processed and controlled in the studio. Producers and directors make decisions on switching between different camera angles, inserting graphics or overlays, and coordinating with the on-site crew. The live broadcast is then aired on television channels for viewers to watch.

In the age of live broadcast, television ruled as audiences eagerly awaited scheduled programming and breaking news. However, the emergence of high-speed internet and streaming platforms ushered in the age of live streaming. This transformative shift allowed individuals to become content creators, sharing their experiences in real-time and reaching a global audience. Live streaming's immediacy, authenticity, and integration with social media platforms captivated viewers, leading to a democratized media landscape where anyone could share their stories and talents. Traditional broadcasters had to adapt, embracing online streaming and interactive elements to stay relevant. The age of live streaming empowered individuals, blurred the line between creators and consumers, and forever changed the way we consume and engage with live content.

A live broadcast differs from live streaming in several ways:

Distribution Method: Live broadcasting is typically transmitted through traditional broadcast channels, such as television networks or satellite systems. Live streaming, on the other hand, relies on internet-based platforms and streaming services to distribute content online.
Quality and Reliability: Live broadcasting often ensures higher production quality and reliability due to the use of professional-grade equipment and established transmission infrastructure. Live streaming quality can vary depending on internet connectivity and may suffer from buffering and other issues that can affect the quality of the feed depending on the capabilities of the streaming platform.
Audience Reach: Live broadcasting has a broader reach as it can be accessed by viewers with television sets or satellite receivers. Live streaming, while accessible to a global audience, requires an internet connection and compatible devices like smartphones, tablets, or computers.
Latency: Live broadcasting has low latency, meaning that the video and audio feeds are transmitted in real-time. Live streaming may have higher latency, meaning that there may be a delay between the live event and the transmission of the video and audio feeds.
Interactivity: Live streaming allows for real-time interaction with the audience through comments, chat features, and social media engagement. Live broadcasting typically does not provide the same level of interactivity, although some television channels may incorporate viewer feedback through phone-ins or online interactions.

Run down and panel production of news bulletins

2024-03-25T09:55:59.074000Z

News bulletins are a fundamental aspect of television journalism, providing concise and informative updates on current events. Behind the scenes, a complex process takes place to ensure the smooth production and delivery of these bulletins.

Timing your news bulletin

Timing your news bulletin is crucial to ensure you cover all important stories within the available time. Consider the length of the bulletin, the number of stories, and the use of actuality clips. Balancing these factors is essential. For a 15-minute bulletin, you can include around 20 stories with grabs, allowing adequate coverage for each. In a shorter 5-minute bulletin, you may only manage 7 or 8 items with minimal actuality.

Since the importance of stories varies, it's challenging to assign fixed time limits. However, aiming for 30 to 45 seconds per story enables proper coverage with some detail. Less significant stories can be mentioned as briefs at the end of the bulletin, consisting of concise one or two-sentence summaries to inform listeners.

Including briefs helps maintain the bulletin's pace when longer, heavier stories are featured. As a newsreader, it's important to fully read through the bulletin before going on air. Time each item and record the duration in the bottom right-hand corner of the script. With practice, you'll develop the ability to estimate reading times without a watch. Some modern newsroom computer systems can automatically calculate story duration based on word count and the newsreader's reading rate.

Balance & Pace

When creating a bulletin, it's important to consider two main factors: balance and pace. Balance means avoiding a bulletin that consists solely of individual stories. Instead, aim for a mix of heavy and light topics, major political events, and stories about everyday people. The actual mix will depend on your station's format, with serious broadcasters focusing on serious stories and youth-oriented stations including lighter content. The order of stories in the bulletin can also be adjusted to add variety and balance.

Pace refers to the speed and tone of the stories as they are presented to listeners. Some stories have a fast pace, using short sentences and snappy words to convey simple ideas. Other stories, like complex political controversies, may require longer sentences and more complicated language, resulting in a slower pace. It's important to maintain a steady pace throughout the bulletin, with occasional variations to keep listeners engaged. Too many long stories can slow down the bulletin, while too many short stories can leave listeners confused.

To achieve balance and pace, start by ranking your stories in order of importance. Then, reassess the order to ensure a good balance of topics and variations in pace. For example, if your top three stories are serious political issues, consider injecting some pace by placing a report of a street fight as the third story. This change in pace can make the subsequent political story feel fresher. Ultimately, the goal is to create a bulletin that maintains interest, with steady pacing and appropriate variations along the way.

Structure of a news bulletin

A news bulletin typically consists of several key components that help structure and deliver the information effectively. These components include:

1. Introduction: The bulletin starts with an introduction that sets the tone and grabs the listeners' attention. It may include a brief overview of the main stories to be covered.

2. Headlines: Following the introduction, the headlines are presented. These are concise summaries of the most important news stories of the day. Headlines are usually delivered in a straightforward manner to provide a quick overview.

3. Main Stories: After the headlines, the bulletin dives into more detailed reports on the main news stories. Each story is typically presented one at a time, with relevant information, interviews, and analysis provided to give listeners a comprehensive understanding.

4. Additional Stories: In addition to the main stories, the bulletin may include shorter reports on other news items of interest. These stories are usually presented in a more concise format, providing key details without as much depth as the main stories.

5. Weather and Traffic Updates: Many news bulletins include weather and traffic updates to keep listeners informed about current conditions and potential disruptions. These updates help people plan their day and stay safe while commuting.

6. Sports News: Depending on the target audience and format of the bulletin, sports news may be included. This segment covers the latest sports highlights, scores, and upcoming events.

7. Business and Finance: Some bulletins include a segment dedicated to business and financial news. This may cover stock market updates, business developments, economic indicators, and other relevant information.

8. Closing and Outro: The bulletin concludes with a closing statement, summarizing the key stories covered and potentially providing a preview of upcoming bulletins. An outro may include contact information, website details, or other relevant announcements.

Run down and panel production

Two essential components in news bulletin production are the run down and panel production.

The steps involved in both processes are detailed below, shedding light on the intricate workflow that brings news bulletins to life.

Step 1: Story Selection and Editorial Planning:

The first step in run down and panel production is the careful selection of news stories to be included in the bulletin. News producers and editors evaluate the relevance, significance, and impact of various news stories to determine which ones deserve coverage. They consider factors such as breaking news, local and international events, and audience interests. Through thorough editorial planning, they create a coherent and balanced lineup of stories for the bulletin.
Step 2: Run Down Preparation:

The run down is a chronological order or sequence of stories and segments that comprise the news bulletin. It serves as a blueprint for the entire production process. In this step, producers organize the selected stories into a structured format, determining the timing, duration, and placement of each segment. They carefully consider the flow, balance, and pacing of the bulletin to engage viewers effectively. The run down acts as a guide for the entire production team, ensuring a smooth and cohesive broadcast.
Step 3: Panel Production:

Panel production involves the creation and coordination of various elements that enhance the visual presentation of the news bulletin. This includes the selection of appropriate graphics, lower thirds (on-screen text), visual effects, and video clips. Producers collaborate with graphic designers, video editors, and technical personnel to create visually appealing and informative elements that support the stories being presented. The panels provide contextual information, captions, and visuals that aid in understanding the news.
Step 4: Script Writing and Teleprompter:

A well-written script is essential for the seamless delivery of news bulletins. Writers collaborate with anchors and reporters to develop accurate and engaging scripts that convey the key information concisely. Anchors and reporters often rely on teleprompters, which display the script in front of the camera, allowing them to maintain eye contact with the audience while delivering their lines smoothly and confidently. Teleprompters ensure accurate timing and synchronization with the video content.
Step 5: Rehearsals and Technical Checks:

Before the actual broadcast, rehearsals and technical checks are conducted to ensure the smooth execution of the news bulletin. Anchors and reporters practice their delivery, fine-tuning their presentation and ensuring proper timing. Technical checks involve testing all the audio, video, and graphic elements to ensure they function correctly and seamlessly integrate with the run down. This step helps identify and address any technical or logistical issues before going live.
Step 6: On-air Presentation:

The final step is the on-air presentation of the news bulletin. Anchors and reporters deliver the news stories following the run down and panel production plan. They engage the audience through clear and articulate communication, maintaining professionalism and credibility throughout the broadcast. The visuals, lower thirds, and video clips seamlessly integrate with the stories, providing the viewers with a comprehensive news experience.

Run down and panel production are vital stages in the creation of news bulletins. The careful selection and arrangement of news stories in the run down, combined with the creation and coordination of visual elements in panel production, contribute to the effective delivery of the news. From story selection and editorial planning to rehearsals and on-air presentation, each step is crucial in ensuring a smooth and engaging news bulletin. By following these steps diligently, news producers and their teams create informative, balanced, and visually appealing broadcasts that keep audiences informed and connected.

Throughout the bulletin, reporters, news anchors, or presenters deliver the information in a clear and concise manner, maintaining a professional tone. The structure and components may vary depending on the specific format and duration of the bulletin, as well as the preferences of the broadcasting organization.

Segments in a news story

2024-03-25T09:56:08.157000Z

When planning a news story for television production, several segments come together to create a cohesive and engaging narrative. Here are short notes on the different segments commonly used in news production:

Introduction (Intro):

The introduction sets the tone and provides a brief overview of the news story.
It should be concise, engaging, and grab the viewers' attention.
The intro may include a headline or lead sentence that summarizes the main point of the story.
It is often delivered by the news anchor or reporter.

Opening Shot:

The opening shot is a visually appealing image or video clip that captures the essence of the story.
It serves to draw viewers in and create interest from the very beginning.
The shot should be carefully chosen to convey the subject matter and evoke emotions.

Sound on Tape (SOTs):

Sound on Tape refers to recorded audio segments that feature interviews, statements, or relevant sounds.
SOTs provide firsthand accounts, expert opinions, or comments from individuals involved in the story.
They add credibility and human interest to the news report.
SOTs are typically accompanied by corresponding video footage.

Teasers:

Teasers are brief promotional clips or statements used to generate interest and anticipation for upcoming news stories.
They are inserted strategically throughout the broadcast to tease upcoming segments.
Teasers are designed to pique viewers' curiosity and entice them to stay tuned.

Piece to Camera (PTC):

A PTC involves the reporter or anchor delivering information or analysis directly to the camera.
It is typically filmed on location at the scene of the story or in a relevant setting.
PTCs provide additional context, narration, or insights that enhance the understanding of the story.
They can serve as transitions between different segments or introduce new angles of the report.

Voice Over (VO):

Voice over is the narration provided by the reporter or anchor that accompanies video footage.
It provides essential information, explanations, or commentary.
VO is often used to bridge gaps in the visual storytelling or to emphasize key points.
It helps guide the viewers through the story and maintain continuity.

Packaging:

Packaging involves combining different elements of the news story, such as visuals, interviews, and voice over, into a cohesive segment.
It is the final presentation of the story, ensuring it flows smoothly and effectively communicates the information.
Packaging aims to engage the audience, maintain their interest, and provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic.
It may include additional graphics, visuals, or on-screen text to enhance the storytelling.

Planning a news story for television production involves careful consideration of various segments to create a compelling and informative report. From the introduction and opening shot to sound on tape (SOTs), teasers, piece to camera (PTC), voice over (VO), and packaging, each segment serves a specific purpose in engaging the audience and conveying the news effectively. By combining these elements thoughtfully, news producers can create engaging and impactful stories for television viewers.

TV Newsroom Structure

2024-02-13T06:34:53.796000Z

The television newsroom serves as the nerve center of a broadcast news organization, where journalists, producers, editors, and technical staff work together to gather, produce, and deliver news content to viewers. The structure of a TV newsroom is designed to facilitate efficient news production, ensure editorial integrity, and maintain a seamless flow of information. A detailed overview of the typical structure and key roles within a TV newsroom is given below.

News Director/Editor-in-Chief: At the helm of the newsroom is the News Director or Editor-in-Chief. This senior-level executive oversees the entire news operation, setting the editorial direction, making critical decisions, and ensuring journalistic standards are met. The News Director works closely with other department heads to manage resources, implement strategies, and drive the overall vision of the news organization.
Assignment Desk: The Assignment Desk is the central hub of news gathering. It is staffed by Assignment Editors who monitor breaking news, field tips and story ideas, and assign reporters to cover specific stories. They maintain constant communication with reporters, photographers, and satellite trucks, ensuring coverage of important events and coordinating logistics.
Producers: Producers are responsible for shaping and creating news content. They work closely with reporters, photographers, and editors to develop story ideas, research topics, conduct interviews, and write scripts. Producers coordinate the flow of news stories, oversee the editorial process, and make decisions regarding story placement, duration, and visual elements. They play a key role in ensuring the overall quality and accuracy of news reports.
Reporters: Reporters are the face of the news organization, responsible for gathering information, conducting interviews, and reporting news stories. They work in the field, covering local, national, or international events, and deliver live reports or pre-recorded segments for news broadcasts. Reporters often specialize in specific beats such as politics, crime, business, or sports, bringing in-depth knowledge and expertise to their reporting.
Anchors: Anchors are the on-air personalities who present the news to the viewers. They deliver the headlines, introduce news stories, conduct interviews, and provide analysis. Anchors often work closely with producers and writers to prepare scripts, ensure smooth transitions between stories, and maintain a professional and engaging on-air presence. They are responsible for delivering the news with credibility, clarity, and objectivity.
Editors: Editors play a critical role in the post-production process, where they assemble raw footage, interviews, and visuals into a cohesive news story. They edit video clips, add graphics, lower thirds, and other visual elements, ensuring the smooth integration of visuals with the narration or voice-over. Editors work closely with producers and reporters to finalize news packages, ensuring accuracy, clarity, and adherence to the news organization's standards.
Technical Staff: Technical staff members, including camera operators, audio technicians, video switchers, and control room operators, provide the necessary technical expertise to support the production of news broadcasts. They operate cameras, control audio levels, switch between different video feeds, and manage the technical aspects of live broadcasts. Technical staff members work closely with producers and directors to ensure smooth operations and technical execution.
Graphics Department: The graphics department is responsible for creating on-screen visuals, lower thirds, maps, and other graphic elements used in news broadcasts. Graphic designers work closely with producers and editors to develop visually appealing and informative graphics that enhance the storytelling and provide context to news stories. They also ensure the consistency and branding of on-screen graphics across different programs.
Newsroom Support Staff: Behind the scenes, various support staff members assist in the smooth functioning of the newsroom. This includes administrative personnel, researchers, archivists, and IT professionals who provide logistical support, maintain databases, conduct research, and ensure the availability of necessary resources for news production.

The TV newsroom structure is a complex ecosystem that brings together professionals from various disciplines to produce timely, accurate, and engaging news content. From the News Director and Assignment Desk to producers, reporters, editors, anchors, technical staff, graphics department, and support staff, each role plays a crucial part in the news production process. Collaboration, coordination, and adherence to journalistic standards are essential in ensuring a successful and impactful television news operation.

Script organisation

2024-03-25T09:56:17.897000Z

In television production, script organization plays a crucial role in shaping the narrative and structure of a television show. It involves carefully structuring the script to effectively engage the audience and convey the desired message. Two key elements of script organization in television production are the opening and theme.

Opening: The opening of a television show serves as the audience's introduction to the program. It sets the tone, captures attention, and establishes the overall style and atmosphere of the show. The opening sequence typically includes elements such as visuals, music, graphics, and voiceovers that create a distinct identity for the program.

The opening is an opportunity to captivate the audience, generate interest, and create anticipation for what lies ahead. It may include an engaging teaser or hook that grabs the viewers' attention and entices them to continue watching. By creating an impactful opening, television shows can leave a lasting impression and draw viewers into the narrative.

The opening can vary depending on the genre and format of the television show. It can be fast-paced and action-packed for a drama or a reality show, or it can be light-hearted and comedic for a sitcom. Regardless of the genre, the opening should be carefully crafted to reflect the essence of the show and engage the target audience from the start.

Theme: The theme of a television show encompasses its central idea, concept, or message. It serves as the underlying thread that runs through the entire series, providing coherence and guiding the storytelling. The theme can be a broad concept or a specific topic that the show explores and conveys to the audience.

The theme of a television show determines its content, character development, conflicts, and resolution. It shapes the narrative arc and helps maintain consistency and focus throughout the series. For instance, a crime drama may have a theme of justice and moral ambiguity, while a family sitcom may revolve around the theme of love and relationships.

The theme is often reflected in the dialogue, character motivations, and plot developments of the show. It allows the audience to connect with the story on a deeper level and resonates with their own experiences and emotions. A well-defined and compelling theme adds depth and substance to a television show, making it more relatable and engaging.

In script organization, the opening and theme work together to establish the identity and purpose of a television show. The opening captures attention and sets the tone, while the theme provides a guiding framework for the narrative. By carefully crafting the opening and developing a strong theme, television productions can create a cohesive and impactful viewing experience for the audience.

Integrated Newsrooms

2024-03-25T09:56:31.978000Z

Integrated Newsrooms

Concept
Basic elements and features
Changes in news-gathering and dissemination
Implications
Challenges

Concept

Shift in Infrastructure, skillset and activities in bringing news to people
Seamless network of info gathering and dissemination where text, sound images and video combine in one platform
No more working separately for print and web
Example

Hindustan Times, NDTV 24x7
The Quint, The Wire

Basic elements & features

Seamless network of info gathering and dissemination where text, sound images and video combine in one platform
No more working separately for print and web
Example

Hindustan Times, NDTV 24x7
The Quint, The Wire

Changes in news gathering and dissemination

Process of functioning

Journalists’ WhatsApp group for breaking news alerts
Details/documents are uploaded onto a common server - editors access the content and adapt to TV & Web
Procedural steps on news updates

First - Breaking news is flashed through a headline both on News TV screen and the Web portal
Second - Details on the unfolding events
Third - Interpretation and analysis

Delivery platforms

Through phones - as videos, op-eds, infographics, documentaries

Other changes

New protocols in some organisation
No longer single medium - multi-media platforms through convergence; digital media facilitates collective work
No more single dominant platform
Web portals are not merely a replica - wider and varied information
Changes in delivery methods - just a click away through apps/social media platforms

Implications of integrated newsrooms on media industry

The practice of the craft
The organisational setup
Financial impact

The practice of the craft

New opportunities

Multi-media, multi-opportunities/scope of providing news - breadth and depth
Can cater to varied needs of the audience - from snippets to features to long form to episodes
Photo-only stories/photo essays
Debate sessions
News stories solely through graphic explainers

Simplification of information gathering

Single person vs. a team to cover news
NDTV reporters with Samsung Galaxy S8 & S9 phones
Reporters shoot their own reports, interviews

Multitasking & multidimensional skills

A journalist is required to do multiple tasks - no longer confined to one single primary activity: Write news, do news copy, think visually, shoot, narrate both still photo and video, so VO, report on camera
Journalists need more than domain knowledge - acquire multimedia production skills

Command over many languages & ability to express any issue in simple language
Train oneself on research skills & be updated on multidimensional aspects of any issue
To speak into the camera and present
Write and edit text/copy
Photography/video making & editing

Wide knowledge base
Attitudinal change & flexibility

Organisational impact

News media organisations are reducing the number of employees causing an adverse impact

Outsourcing reporting to regional and local stringers
In journalism, a stringer is a freelance journalist, photographer, or videographer who contributes reports, photos, or videos to a news organization on an ongoing basis but is paid individually for each piece of published or broadcast work.

Single person dependency - reliance on network of stringres - lack of diversity in ground reporting

News become urban focused vs. rural focused

Financial impact

Reliance on news portal for revenues

Companies are investing heavily in digital marketing
Reduction of ad revenue in print media
Growth of online audience/subscribers
India ranks second in digital consumption

News Aggregators

A news aggregator, also termed a feed aggregator, feed reader, news reader, RSS reader or simply an aggregator, is client software or a web application that aggregates syndicated web content such as online newspapers, blogs, podcasts, and video blogs (vlogs) in one location for easy viewing. The updates distributed may include journal tables of contents, podcasts, videos, and news items.

E.g., Google News, Apple News, Flipboard, Feedly

Multimedia News Stories

2024-03-25T09:56:29.097000Z

Not all stories make good multimedia stories. The best multimedia stories are multi-dimensional.

They include action for video, a process that can be illustrated with a graphic (e.g., "how tornadoes form" or "how this new surgery works"), someone who can give some pithy quotes for video or audio, and/or strong emotions for still photos and audio.

Most multimedia stories require that the reporter go into the field to report the story face-to-face with sources, rather than doing a story entirely by telephone. To learn more about multimedia storytelling and get hands-on practice with creating video, photos, data visualizations and more, consider attending one of our workshops.

A multimedia story is some combination of text, still photographs, video clips, audio, graphics and interactivity presented on a Web site in a nonlinear format in which the information in each medium is complementary, not redundant.

Nonlinear means that rather than reading a rigidly structured single narrative, the user chooses how to navigate through the elements of a story. Not redundant means that rather than having a text version of a story accompanied by a video clip that essentially tells the same story, different parts of a story are told using different media. The key is using the media form – video, audio, photos, text, animation – that will present a segment of a story in the most compelling and informative way.

In the past, it was difficult to build a truly immersive multimedia story. Part of the problem has been internet bandwidth; another part has been the power of web browsers. A third part of the problem has been how hard it is to build visually interesting stories without the help — and expense — of developers and web designers.

In multimedia stories, media is fundamental to how the narrative is conceived and created.

This is unlike most web content, where media is typically included as an afterthought.

Multimedia journalism is the practice of contemporary journalism that distributes news content either using two or more media formats via the Internet, or disseminating news report via multiple media platforms.

Citizen journalism, also known as collaborative media, participatory journalism, democratic journalism, guerrilla journalism or street journalism, is based upon public citizens "playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and disseminating news and information."

Professional experience and the literature suggest that new media technologies challenge one of the most fundamental ‘truths’ in journalism, namely: the professional journalist is the one who determines what publics see, hear and read about the world.

(Fulton, 1996; Singer, 1998)

The multimedia journalist has to make decisions about what kind of platforms to utilize when practicing his or her craft, and in the case of multimedia productions has to be able to oversee story ‘packages’ rather than repurposing single stories in multiple formats

Navigation structures

Linear:Users navigate sequentially, from one frame of information to another

Hierarchical:Users navigate along the branches of a tree structure that is shaped by the natural logic of the content

Nonlinear: Users navigate freely through the content of the project, unbound by predetmined routes

Composite: Users may navigate freely, but are occasionally constrained to linear presentations of movies or date.

JC 1472: Television Broadcasting Notes

2024-03-25T09:55:46.577000Z

JC 1472: Television Broadcasting

Course Outcomes

To narrate the characteristics of television
To write basics for television programme
To plan and sketch the essentials of broadcasting

All articles
Module-wise list

Click on the highlighted text to go to the respective article under each module.

Module 1

Television genres (infotainment channels, educational TV programmes, news & current affairs channels, business channels, general entertainment channel)
Programme formats (soap opera, reality shows, game shows, youth programme, travelogue, film-based shows, etc.)

Module 2

Module 3

Planning a news story

Module 4

Current trends in television broadcasting

Idea of cross ownership in Media

2024-03-25T09:56:48.068000Z

Definition

Cross-media ownership is a situation in which a single corporate entity owns multiple types of media companies. The types of media companies owned may include print, radio, television, movie and internet media sites. Owning multiple types of media companies allows a single corporation to build cross-linked walled gardens that corral customers and their money to the corporation’s child companies and create an environment of controlled messages.

Relevance of Cross-media ownership

Media is called the fourth pillar of Indian democracy. It plays a crucial role as a medium of communication between the government and the people. In today’s world, thanks to technology, news is available to everybody at anytime at their fingertips, and it moulds public opinion of almost everything. Thus, it becomes important to know the source and intent of the news one reads. Different media groups provide us with diverse opinions. Media pluralism reflects an essential tenet of democracy i.e. freedom of speech. It plays a vital role in sustaining a democracy and therefore, it is essential that media itself functions in a democratic manner. Hence, in order to serve its inherent purpose, it is vital that media channels provide to its readers true content without any biases or motives. Media is a powerful institution and under wrong influences, it can act as a threat to democracy.

Oligarchy in any business is considered unhealthy. However, unfortunately, the current trends in media market point towards cross media ownership. Cross media ownership is a situation in which a single media producer owns different channels of communication, which include print, digital, television, radio etc.

Indian scenario

We, however, see it spreading unregulated in the Indian scenario. One of the best-selling English newspapers in India, The Times of India, owns 40 other new media businesses. Similarly, other major groups such as Essel group (owner of Zee media) and Hindustan Times have influence over more than one media platforms. It's not surprising that the majority of the news channels today are either owned or controlled by political parties or corporate houses. Moreover, political parties and corporate entities have a symbiotic relationship. Corporates provide parties with funds and, in return, political parties help them grow their business. An ideal media would expose this unfair nexus, but today, it has also become one of them.

Political parties use media outlets for lobbying purposes as a medium to achieve their vested interests, and especially as an instrument to promote their party during elections. They own the channels either directly in their own name, through their relatives or through corporate companies.

All over the world today, corporate entities own most of the media platforms. For them, it is not just a source to reap profits and expand their business, but also a way towards influence and power. By investing in media groups, they pursue their economic interests. Rupert Murdoch is a well known name in the media empire. He not only owns media platforms in Australia, but also has influence over foreign media platforms including India. In India, the Reliance group, run by the Ambani family, has major control over media channels. Media group Network 18 is owned by them; Network 18 in turn owns several television news channels.

Ownership of corporate firms restricts the ease and credibility of media. The institution of media, ideally, should remain independent from any kind of fear, pressure or external interference in their affairs. Sadly, media groups today are dependent on political parties and corporate entities for investment and thus, fear to report anything against them. All this has led to rise in commercialisation of news, paid news, sensational news stories and propaganda news. Thus, what the readers or viewers get is filtered and manipulative information.

The Indian media, during its beginning in the independence days, emerged as the voice of the people and the nation. It had a mission and a purpose to serve the nation. It represented a collective voice of the people against the British oppression. Media was then strong and independent. But post independence, the sanctity and integrity of this institution started declining. Today, media is witnessing dark times where it has surrendered its powers to those with money. This issue has not received due attention. The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting referred this issue to TRAI twice, in 2008 and 2014. The TRAI, in its consultation paper, recommended measures to regulate media ownership.

Apart from India, cross media ownership exists in many other countries. The US, the UK, Australia and Canada have formulated laws to limit media ownerships in their countries. Australia and Canada have a blanket restriction on the entry of a media entity into more than one or two media segments. After studying the laws in these countries, TRAI recommended that political bodies, religious bodies, government institutions and other publicly funded bodies should not be allowed to own media groups as media plurality is necessary in building public opinion. Except for the formulation of Press Council of India in 1978, no other action has been taken to check media ownership. No strict action has been taken on the recommendation given by the TRAI. In the current scenario, media should no more function as a self-regulated body. Regulations in media is the need of the hour. Despite living in a democracy, citizens find it hard to get to the truth. Their rights are being violated by those who are meant to protect them.

Artificial Intelligence in journalism

2024-03-25T09:56:44.819000Z

In today’s world which is ruled by digitisation, technology is powering journalism. Artificial intelligence involved jobs accounts to around 10-12% of the total functionalities in the industry.

Machine-Written Articles: AI can help human reporters in more complex work, such as long-form articles, in-depth analyses and investigative journalism. AI-written articles are currently limited to simple and formulaic topics including stock market results, sports game scores, etc.
Transcribing Audio and Video Interviews: AI can save reporters valuable time by transcribing audio and video interviews. It converts audio data into text so that journalists can focus on deriving insights rather than transcribing audio or video interviews.
Flagging Alerts: AI can examine large databases and send journalists alerts as soon as a trend or anomaly emerges from big data. It can provide content producers and publisher’s tools to identify fake news and lessen their impact on their readership.
Powering Journalistic Processes: AI systems can improve journalistic processes and workflows. It can help organizations streamline their distributed processes for gleaning information, contacting sources and backend operations like dealing with the advertisers.
Controls bias: Bias is a global issue and news media have no escape from it. However, AI assists in reducing the subjective interpretation of the data of the human as its machine learning algorithms are trained to consider accuracy.
Robot as news reporters: Despite invading manufacturing, healthcare and marketing industry, robots are now in newsrooms as well. China’s state-run Xinhua News Agency made a breakthrough by deploying a robot as ‘English AI Anchor.’

Challenges and opportunities as a journalist

2024-03-25T09:56:45.937000Z

Today, the media environment is changing in part as a result of technological and market developments largely associated with the rise of digital media. The precise nature of change in the media environment varies in important ways from country to country, but there are some clear, high–level commonalities that represent both opportunities and challenges for journalism, media organisations, and public debate. The three most important developments driven by technological and market forces today are—

The move to an increasingly digital, mobile, and social media environment with increasingly intense competition for attention where legacy media like broadcasters and especially newspapers, while remaining very important news producers are becoming relatively less important as distributors of news and are under growing pressure to develop new digital business models as their existing operations decline or stagnate.
The growing importance of a limited number of large technology companies that enable billions of users across the world to navigate and use digital media in easy and attractive ways through services like search, social networking, video sharing, messaging, etc. and who as a consequence play a more and more important role in terms of (a) the distribution of news and (b) digital advertising.
The development of a high–choice media environment where internet users have access to more and more information in convenient formats and often for free, across a range of increasingly sophisticated personal and mobile devices, and in ways that enable new forms of participation—an environment where those most interested in news embrace these new opportunities to get,

Speed vs. Accuracy

When print was the only medium available to the journalists ample time was available for research, publishing and editing. Indeed, only a few publishers had access to printing press with which to make the product. As mass media progressed, new forms of print and broadcasting appeared, time allowed for journalistic expression shrank. Internet allows news to move at tremendous dispatch limited only by the speed of electron or electromagnetic wave. The immediacy brought by the online environments everyone is a potential publishers, allows for even less care by the journalist and editor. The speed and anonymity provided by the internet can play fast but loose with journalistic ethics and can affect accuracy and credibility.

Accuracy -- to get the facts and context of a story right -- is a fundamental norm of ethical journalism. Inaccurate reporting undermines important news stories and can mislead the public. Accuracy is the indispensable value in journalism and must not be compromised in Cyber Journalism.

Accurate reporting has never been easy, given journalism’s deadline- driven nature. But today, accuracy is further challenged, as news-making adopts the internet medium.

One of the greatest benefits of online journalism is its ability to reach millions of people almost instantaneously. But the pressure to keep news current – online within minutes of an event’s occurrence – can put at risk the accurate reporting of even the most ethically-conscious journalist. Adding to the pressure is the public’s increasing demand to see news as it happens. So it is certainly extremely – and increasingly – challenging. A balance is necessary between speed and accuracy. The public demands it, and so do journalistic codes of ethics. The consequences of disseminating falsehoods can be equally serious as the consequence of delayed news-dissemination.

Trained and multi-skilled reporters

Another challenge towards online journalism is the convergence. Convergence reporters must be trained to report in multiple media. They should be multi skill able to work in a converged media environment. If necessary, a convergence reporter might file a brief for the Web, edit video for television and then write a story for the next day's paper. Convergence reporters often specialize in a single medium, but their

familiarity with other forms of storytelling gives them an edge in today's ever-changing media landscape.

Furthermore, there is so much information available online that it can be difficult working out where to start and where to stop gathering it. With the change to a much broader reliance on the Internet and web for news, it will become increasingly important for journalists to be multi skilled able to work in more than one medium, and preferably in several, in what has become known as a converged media environment.

From gate keeping to gate watching

For a long time, gate keeping has provided a dominant paradigm for journalistic news gathering and news publishing in the mass media, both for journalists’ own conceptualization of their work and for academic studies of this mediation process. In media such as print, radio, and TV, with their inherent structures of available column space, air time, or transmission frequencies, it is necessary to have established mechanisms which keep watch over these gates and select events to be reported according to specific criteria of newsworthiness. Gate keeping is the process by which selections are made in media work, especially decisions whether or not to admit a particular news story to pass through the "gates" of a news medium into the news channels. Lately, however, the effectiveness of gate keeping has been questioned from a number of perspectives: on the one hand, increasingly ‘the practice of journalism is being contaminated from outside. The "fourth estate" is in danger of being overwhelmed by the "fifth estate", the growing number of "PR merchants and spin doctors" influencing the news agenda’ (Turner et al. 2000: 29, following Franklin) and undermining the reliability of the gate keeping process itself. This is also related to the fact that ever since the emergence of 24-hour broadcast news services and even more so since the advent of online news the reporting speed required of news services has also increased steadily, which has made gatekeepers even more likely to rely on prepared material from this ‘fifth estate’ rather than spending time and money on their own, independent research.

Comprehensivness, Hypertextuality, Interactivity

2024-03-25T09:56:42.767000Z

Comprehensiveness

Online journalism has the potential to be more thorough than journalism in any other medium. It can provide materials in multiple forms that free journalists from the bounds of text-based stories and space limitations. Its flexibility in form of presentation allows journalists to tailor elements of a story to the ways people learn best. The best online journalism models the idea that the whole of something can be greater than the sum of its parts. The nature of the medium is part of the foundation of excellence online, but the medium’s potential depends on the efforts of journalists and the priorities of their organizations. The complex nature of the medium also poses distinctive challenges in storytelling, and these challenges add to the difficulties that journalists face thanks to time and staffing limitations. This combination of factors makes it difficult to realize the potential of online journalism to tell comprehensive stories.

Comprehensiveness in online journalism takes in the distinctive strengths of the forms that contribute to the medium, but it also involves strengths that encompass more than one form.

Overarching elements

unfiltered information: original/source documents and data
greater volume of information
enduring background information
drilling down on one aspect of the story
interaction/dialogue with audience
combination of forms—"fullest flowering of media"
forms appropriate to a story and the ways people learn

Comprehensiveness in online journalism means going deep and wide with information. It also means fostering opportunities for interaction and making the most of the multiple forms of communication available online. It depends on how stories are told in the nuances of various online forms including interactive/information graphics, text, audio, photos, and video.

Hypertextuality

Another use of text that is important in online journalism is links. Hyperlinks are at the heart of the identity of the online medium because they enable navigation to other elements on the site and information elsewhere. Like stories themselves, links can help to provide detail and context—for example, by sending readers to sites that offer expert knowledge, explain points of view, or show how to get help.

The pages with these links also offer context through brief explanations of the types of information available on these sites. Links are so much a part of the medium that it is easy to take them for granted, but they are integral to online excellence. A key difference between simply shoveling newspaper stories onto a website and providing added value to users is the decision to offer direct ways to connect with additional opportunities for learning.

Practices of interactive tools on media websites

Interactive journalism is a new type of journalism that allows consumers to directly contribute to the story. Reporters can develop a conversation with the audience. The digital age has changed how people collect information. Interactive journalism allows media outlets to "include convergence with citizens, the public, as well.
Community members have a wide range of online elements, such as blogs, websites and social media, to disseminate their stories. Therefore, media outlets have been forced to widen the definition "of mass media from ‘one-to-many’ to ‘many-to-many’ communication.
One of the most popular interactive journalism tools are blogs, which allow grassroot news to be developed by eyewitnesses or those with expertise or interest in a particular subject area. Bloggers often cite and link to mainstream news articles and mainstream journalists often get story ideas from blogs they monitor. The blog format allows readers to add further information or corrections. Many blogs syndicate their content to subscribers using RSS, a popular content distribution tool.
Blogs, social media pages, comment boxes, video sharing platforms, podcasts

News Packages

2024-03-25T09:56:38.698000Z

News packages

An online story package is not simply a news article that’s been uploaded to a Web site with perhaps a single photo accompanying it, instead, an online story that uses multiple media working together to tell a story. A package should contain at least one text story (possibly also one or more short sidebar stories), and multiple additional elements. These can include individual photos or photo galleries, one or more pieces of video or audio, one or more information graphics, or anything else that goes beyond words to help make a story more complete.

Sidebar story: A secondary article that accompanies a main story, usually focusing in more depth on a person or topic from the main story. These are common in online story packages because they provide additional detail that might not fit into a print publication.
An information graphic (often referred to as an "infographic") is a drawing, chart or other visual representation used to make facts or concepts easier to understand. Infographics can include graphs, charts, timelines and many other formats, and are generally used to visually represent data, locations, comparisons and changes over time. As computers became common in newsrooms in the 1980s and ’90s, these became popular in print publications. In online news, however, such graphics can be made interactive and include animations, video and other engaging functions.

Unlike some other types of news reporting, creating online story packages takes a lot of time. You can quickly put together online materials for a breaking story, but to create a fully integrated package is labor-intensive, especially when first learning how to do it. This is why the best of these packages are often done in the wake of a major event, or when covering a person or issue in which timeliness isn’t a major element. That means this class will rarely if ever focus on breaking news, but rather on more of a newsmagazine approach – giving readers a thorough, in-depth, well-researched look at a story.

A factor that makes creating multimedia story packages challenging is that unlike many traditional forms of news, there is no single "template" for creating them. Traditional print news articles have evolved over many decades into certain styles and approaches, as have TV and radio reports. Yet perhaps due to the multifaceted nature of online media and its newness to the news business, as well as the fact that new reporting and presentation technologies are constantly being introduced, there are relatively few structures or guidelines for creating effective online story packages. In such a vaguely-defined field, it’s hard to know where to start, but the lack of set standards means one can be creative and try to tell their stories in new and interesting ways.

Integrating audio, photographs, graphics and video to enhance news/article

2024-03-25T09:56:50.075000Z

Familiarize yourself with the strengths of the different types of media content you can use online, and the types of stories that lend themselves to certain media elements. (The goal is to get you to react to story ideas by instinctively determining which kinds of media will most effectively help them tell the story engagingly and fully.)

Text stories

Text is often the anchor element; provide greater breadth and depth of information; able to convey complex topics, facts and figures; leaves all questions answered (should); figurative language can conjure up a mental image
Lacks drama, connection (faces), reasons which made people prefer TV to newspapers in the 1960s, requires effort, more process steps to consume information
When we think of "writing a story," this is what usually comes to mind. But how should text stories be used best within the structure of a multimedia package? Many effective packages have a main story that serves as the anchor, the central jumping-off point for readers that explains why they should be interested and conveys the basic information upon which the package is based. Often they are supported by sidebar stories, as noted above, which add depth and detail to an aspect of the main story. A question you might want to consider about adding sidebar stories, however, is whether they add more to a package than a piece of video or an infographic might. The notion is that other types of content might be more engaging to readers. Of course, the question is just an extension of the larger issue of that kind of media work best for what kinds of content.
Photos and video are known for conveying emotions, but text stories can do this as well, and also provide a much greater breadth of information. Text can be great for facts and figures if it’s used to clarify what might otherwise be difficult to understand. Text stories also lend themselves toward in-depth analysis of complex topics, providing background information, history of a topic and different sides of issues.
We’ve already noted that often a text story is at the heart of a package, and part of the reason is that depth of information is text’s clear strength. Often the text story provides the background information that makes all the other elements make sense, introducing people, concepts and circumstances. It can also summarize and connect seemingly dissimilar material.
The clarity and specificity of information in text stories is something that should never be overlooked. Video or audio interviews or photo galleries provide a type of rich information, but they can leave unanswered questions or unexplained concepts. Individual interviewees and photo subjects aren’t looking at the big picture in the way a skilled reporter or editor does. In many ways, text and editing are what make disparate pieces of media content work together to create a meaningful whole. It’s the element over which reporters and editors have most control within online story packages.
Weaknesses of text stories are often best explained in comparison to other media. They can lack the drama of video and photos, and the instinctive connection of seeing the faces of the people involved. When television surpassed newspapers as the most popular news medium in America in the 1960s, these factors were widely cited. Yet when used in conjunction with the other media, text stories can wield great power. Figurative language can sometimes create a mental image that is as strong or even stronger than a visual image.

Photos

Traditional multimedia storytelling element; provide drama, create emotions, empathy, - tools to tell a story, rather than a pretty picture, complement/augment text; humanize that information; appeal to the heart - no story package is complete without photos
Great at spotlighting moments but weak at providing context

Video

Today’s audiences have grown up with TV, movies and online video, so they may be drawn to video content more quickly than any other type of media; not for every story, but that which involves action;
Photos are better for moments, video is better for processes; interviews - more a personal connection; wanting to shoot everything might not work as well
Not good at conveying detailed info; illusion of reality while missing out critical info that is out of the view field; editing and processing takes lot of time; with titles, transitions and other on-screen elements - highly time consuming, often more than other critical tasks put together; sometimes raw video connects more, resonating with 'reality TV', it carries the typical risks of unedited video - might seem unprofessional;

Infographics

Often underrated and underused; very effective if done well; the engaging visuals of photos and video and the facts and details of text – into something uniquely informative. Instead of writing a history of a given company or institution, you can create graphically rich timelines featuring photos and key facts from across time. The key to effective infographics lies in taking something complex and using a visual apparatus to make it simple and easy to understand; it should only be used when they will add something unique to a package.
Animated infographics that clearly show a trend over time

Supporting text

Ties the elements of a story package together into a cohesive whole.
Captions, photo/video credits, names of people pictured, headlines that would help readers connect the sometimes disparate elements of a package.

Adobe Audition & Soundbooth

2024-03-14T06:25:08.847000Z

In 2006 Adobe created a fair amount of controversy when they introduced Soundbooth, a new addition to their multimedia productivity suite. The controversy was not so much the Soundbooth software itself but the fact that it was replacing Adobe Audition in popular software bundles.

In a nutshell:

Adobe Audition is a professional-level editor with lots of very powerful features.
Adobe Soundbooth is an entry-level application with a limited selection of wizard-type features.

Adobe Audition was originally Cool Edit, a popular application in its own right. Adobe acquired Cool Edit and integrated it into their existing suite. It is now a mature application that includes full multi-track capabilities and a comprehensive set of effects, filters and tools.

Soundbooth is a new application developed largely as a companion for Premiere Pro and Flash. It is limited in features and not suitable for complex sound editing.

Soundbooth will almost certainly improve in the years ahead and will probably close the gap somewhat. However Adobe has said they intend keeping Audition as their advanced audio option, so there is little hope that Soundbooth will ever catch up.

Soundbooth does work very well with video, especially when integrated with Premiere Pro. The "common tasks" panel is simple and effective. Soundbooth is a good option for people who aren't sound professionals, and for anyone working with video who wants a quick way to address simple problems.

Soundbooth does not look destined to become a complete editor, but could certainly fill a useful role as a convenient toolbox. Perhaps the ideal setup is to use Soundbooth for quick fix-up jobs and use Audition for more complex audio projects.

Summary

Soundbooth has the advantage of being easier to learn and simpler to use for certain common tasks. Audition has the advantage of being better in every other way.

Video: What is Adobe Audition?

Tutorials by Adobe: https://helpx.adobe.com/in/audition/tutorials.html

Technological determinism

2024-03-25T09:57:26.756000Z

Technological determinism is a reductionist theory that aims to provide a causative link between technology and a society’s nature. It tries to explain as to whom or what could have a controlling power in human affairs. The theory questions the degree to which human thought or action is influenced by technological factors.

The term ‘technological determinism’ was coined by Thorstein Veblen and this theory revolves around the proposition that technology in any given society defines its nature. Technology is viewed as the driving force of culture in a society and it determines its course of history.

Karl Marx believed that technological progress lead to newer ways of production in a society and this ultimately influenced the cultural, political and economic aspects of a society, thereby inevitably changing society itself. He explained this statement with the example of how a feudal society that used a hand mill slowly changed into an industrial capitalist society with the introduction of the steam mill.

WINNER’S HYPOTHESES

Langdon Winner provided two hypotheses for this theory:

1. The technology of a given society is a fundamental influencer of the various ways in which a society exists

2. Changes in technology are the primary and most important source that leads to change in the society

An offshoot of the above hypotheses which is not as extreme is the belief that technology influences the various choices that we make and therefore a changed society can be traced back to changed technologies.

Technological determinism manifests itself at various levels initially it starts with the introduction of newer technologies introduces various changes and at times these changes can also lead to a loss of existing knowledge as well. For example, the introduction of newer agricultural tools and methods has seen the gradual loss of knowledge of traditional means of farming. Therefore technology is also influencing the level of knowledge in a society.

Examples of Technological determinism

History shows us numerous examples to explain why technology is considered to be determining the society that we live in. The invention of the gun changed how disputes were sorted out and changed the face of combat. A gun required minimum effort and skill to be used successfully and could be used from a safe distance. This when compared to how earlier wars were fought with swords and archery lead to a radical change in the weapons used in war. Today with the discovery of nuclear energy, future wars will be fought with nuclear arsenal. Each new discovery causes a transition to a different society. The discovery of steam power let to the development of the industrial society and the introduction of computers has led to the dawn of the information age.

Technological Drift

Winner believed that changes in technology sometimes had unintended or unexpected results and effects as well. Winner called this phenomenon as ‘technological drift’ where people start drifting more and more among a sea of unpredictable and uncertain consequences. According to Winner, technology is not the slave of the human being but rather humans are slaves to technology as they are forced to adapt to the technological environment that surrounds them.

Forms of Technological Determinism

An alternative weaker view of technological determinism says that technology is serving a mediating function because despite it leading to changes in culture, it is actually controlled by human beings. When control of technology slowly reduces from being in the hands of few human beings, it passes completely into the control of technology itself. This view of humans having no control is referred to as ‘autonomous technological determinism.’

Technological Determinism and Media

New media are not only an addition to existing media, they are also new technologies and therefore do have a deterministic factor as well. Marshall McLuhan made a famous statement that "the medium is the message." This means that the medium used to communicate influences the mind of the receiver. The introduction of news print, television and the internet have all shown how technological advances have an impact on the society in which we live in.

Criticism of Technological Determinism

A critique of technological determinism is that technology never forces itself on members of the society. Man creates technology and chooses to use them. He invents television and chooses to view it. There is no imposition on the part of the technology to be used rather technology requires people to participate or involve themselves at some point or another to use a car or a microwave. The choice of using technology and experiencing its effects therefore lies in the hand of a human being.

Gerbner’s Model

2024-03-25T09:57:28.171000Z

Mr. George Gerbner is one of the pioneers in the field of communication research. His works are descriptive as well as very easy to understand any other before. He is working as a professor and head of the Annenberg School of Communications in the University of Pennsylvania. In 1956, Gerbner attempted the general purpose of communication models. He stressed the dynamic nature of communication in his work and also the factor which affecting the reliability of communication.

(Note: This model can be best understood when read along with the diagram beginning at E – Event.)

(i) Perceptual Dimension:

An ‘E’ is an event happens in the real life and the event content or message is perceived by ‘M’ (Man or a Machine). After Perceives the message from "E" by "M" is known as "E1". E1 is not same as like ‘E’. Because any man or machine can’t perceives the whole event and they perceives only the part of the event (E1). This is known as "Perceptual Dimension".

These 3 factors are involves between ‘E’ and ‘M’

Selection
Context
Availability

M (man or machine) cannot perceive the entire content of the event "E". So M selects the interesting or needed content from the entire event and filtering the others. The context occurs in the event and Availability is based on ‘M’s attitude, mood, culture and personality. (For eg. How a journalist perceives the messages from the event and also can’t focus the whole event so they filter the unwanted or unrelated content from the event. This filtered content is not same as like the actual event content because the journalist edits the content based on his attitude, mood and cultural background or press policies).

(ii) Means and Controls dimension:

E2 is the event content which is drawn or artified by M. Here M becomes the source of a message about E to send someone else. M creates a statement or signals about the message and Gerbner termed its Form and content as "SE2". S (Signal or Form) it takes and E2 (Man’s content). Here Content (E2) is structured or formed (S) by ‘M’ and it can communicate in a different ways or based on the structured ways.

M has to use channels (or media) over to send the message which he has a greater or lesser degree of control. The question of ‘control’ relates to M’s degree of skill in using communication channels. If using a verbal channel, how good is he using words? If using the Internet, how good is he at using new technology and words?

This process can be extended to infinitum by adding on other receivers (M2, M3 etc.) who have further perceptions (SE3, SE4 etc.) of the statements about perceived events.

Important Note:

Message at every level is altered or changed.

Example:

In case of news reporting, E can be any event that has happened and the reporter (M) selects a particular part of event (E1) that may be provide his channel higher TRP ratings or the news may boost the particular party which his channel supports. This SE2 is sent through a medium to the mass audience. Then the audience distributed the message (SE2) and he (M1) sends to his friends with his interpretation and the process continues.

The Newcomb’s Model

2024-03-25T09:57:30.077000Z

The New Comb’s model of communication was introduced by Theodore M Newcomb of the University of Michigan in 1953. He gives different approach to the communication process. The main purpose of this theory is to introduce the role of communication in a social relationship (society) and to maintain social equilibrium within the social system. He does not include the message as a separate entity in his diagram, implying it only by use of directional arrows. He concentrates on the social purpose of communication, showing all communication as a means of sustaining relationships between people. Sometimes it’s called as an "ABX" model of communication.

The Newcomb’s model works in a triangular format or A-B-X system

A – Sender

B – Receiver

X – Matter of Concern

The relationship between A and B is like student and teacher, government and public or newspaper and readers. Sender and Receiver may work in a same flow but the same time some factor like "X" may affect their flow of relationship. "X" it may be third persons, issue, topic or policy.

For Example:

Teachers introduce a new policy to increase the college timing from 6 hours to 8 hours.

A – Teachers B – Students X – Policy or issue

If both students and teachers are satisfied with this policy then the communication maintains its equilibrium status between them. Otherwise the flow of communication between "A" and "B" becomes trouble in the social system. If "A" or "B" is not ready to accept the policy then it will directly affect the social system and can’t maintain the equilibrium status. So Teachers"A" can convince students "B" as much as possible. Otherwise they have to make some adjustments in the Policy "X" and convince them towards the policy.

Helical Model of Communication

2024-02-13T06:33:32.529000Z

In 1967, Frank Dance has proposed the communication model called Dance’s Helix Model for a better communication process. The name helical comes from "Helix" which means an object having a three-dimensional shape like that of a wire wound uniformly around a cylinder or cone. He shows communication as a dynamic and non-linear process.

The model views communication as

1. Cyclical,

2. Influenced by time and experience,

3. Continuous,

4. Non-Repetitive, and

5. Accumulative (getting increasingly more complex and ‘knowledgeable’)

Theory

Dance’s model emphasized the difficulty of communication. Frank Dance uses the form of a Helix to describe the communication process. He developed this theory based on a simple helix which gets bigger and bigger as it moves or grows. The main characteristics of a helical model of communication is that it is evolutionary.

Frank Dance explains the communication process based on this Helix structure and compares it with communication. In the Helix structure, the bottom or starting is very small then it gradually moves upward in a back and forth circular motion which forms the bigger circle in the top and it is still moves further. The whole process takes some time to reach. As like helix, the communication process starts very slowly and defined small circle only. The communicators shared information only with a small portion of themselves to their relationships. Its gradually develops into next level but which will take some time to reach and expanding its boundaries to the next level. Later the communicators commit more and shared more portions by themselves.

Example

When a child is born the only means of communication for him is crying, he cries for everything like hunger, pain, cold, etc. As the child grows the means of communication become wider and broader. He learns to make noises then he learns a language to obtain attention and to fulfil his needs. As a Helix, the process of communication, in this case, started as crying and later it developed into a complex and compound means.

The Helical model of communication is largely dependent on its past. A child learns to pronounce a word in his elementary classes and throughout his life he uses that word in the same way he learnt. Just like that, we used to react to certain things in a certain way in our childhood and such reactions and habits lasts with us forever. The communication evolves in the beginning in some simple forms then the same process of communication functions and develops based on past activities. Thus, his way of communication or his reactions may also different from the past behavior and experiences. It develops further with modifications according to the situations.

Therefore the model concludes that the process of communication is like a continuous curve with some changes or flexibility. The base of the helical curve (lower level) can be affected and/or altered at any time accordingly the experience of an individual.

Conclusion

Frank Dance included the concept of time in his theory. The lifetime experience gained over the issue will always be based on the similar event/incident happened in the past according to him. This theory of communication was subject to a number of experimental researches. Even though this model of communication clarifies everything there is a problem of oversimplification. According to this theory, a communication process is the product of what we learnt.

Packaging for a channel

2024-03-25T09:56:11.837000Z

Packaging may be defined as the attractive presentation of a product. It is therefore the final form in which a product is delivered to a consumer. For example, if a confectioner wishes to market his biscuits, he has the choice of selling them loose by weight or nicely packaged in an attractive-looking packet. Packaging is necessary for businesses to survive, since it is the way in which they present their products to their customers. The packaging of a television channel refers to the overall look of the channel. Since we are here concerned primarily with news channels, we shall confine our discussion to them.

Significance of packaging for news channels

The term ‘packaging’ comes from the discipline of Marketing Management. It is part of the business strategy used in strengthening the place of a firm in the marketplace. The look of a channel, among other things, defines and reflects its brand image. The brand image of a channel is the psychological image that people carry of it. For example, NDTV 24*7 has the brand image of being accurate and reliable, while CNN-IBN has the brand image of being reliable and aggressive. Likewise Aajtak has the brand image of being aggressive as well as the fastest channel to deliver news. It may be observed that each of the major television news channels in India has its own individual look. Aajtak uses plenty of red to highlight its aggressive image, while Star News uses plenty of blue to emphasize its sophistication. The packaging of a news channel is thus part of its business strategy to create and manage the psychological image which audiences carry of it.

Elements of packaging in news channels

The packaging of news channels involves consideration of the following factors.

The predominant colour or colour-combinations used by the channel. As pointed out, Aajtak uses plenty of red to highlight its aggressiveness, while Star News uses plenty of blue to emphasize its sophistication.
The design of the channel logo and its position on the screen.
The hair-styles and dress-codes defined for the male and female anchors of the channel
The designs used in the making of various graphic elements. These elements include: 

Astons: The band which appears on screen during a person’s soundbite, stating his or her name and designation
Fonts: The particular form of alphabets used for text, and its size 
Bugs: A little band which appears on any given side of a screen, stating the location or time of a story
Slugs: A band, which appears on screen during a news story stating the headline of the story. 
Ticker: A static or scrolling band at the bottom of the screen which flashes important news, text messages by viewers or share prices 
Windows: The screen is split into two or more windows showing two different locations simultaneously

Osgood-Schramm’s Model

2024-03-25T09:57:30.865000Z

Wilbur Schramm proposed the model of communication in 1954. Schramm, a leading communication expert, has provided an overview of the elements and processes of communication to explain how these work in practically all forms of communication - communicating with ourselves, communicating with one person or a group of persons, or communication with a mass audience of thousands and millions of people. In fact, Schramm's contribution in conceptualising communication is so important that it has helped in formulating a more acceptable explanation about the working of the communication process.

The Osgood-Schramm model of communication is defined as a circular model that shows that messages go in two directions. The model has four key principles:

Communication is circular not linear;
Communication is usually equal and reciprocal;
Messages require interpretation;
There are three steps for communicating: encoding, decoding and interpreting.

Principle 1: Circular Communication

The image above shows how the Osgood-Schramm model works. It involves circular communication between two people. Each person is both a sender and a receiver. They are therefore able to communicate to one another, rather than only in one direction.

This circular feature of the model is very different from other liner models of the time like the Shannon-Weaver model or Lasswell’s model of communication.

When critiquing linear or ‘transmission’ models such as the Shannon-Weaver model, Schramm argued:

"In fact it is misleading to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are really switchboard centers handling and re-routing the great endless current of information." (Schramm, 1955)

Principle 2: Equal and Reciprocal Communication

Because both members of the communication have the capacity to encode, decode and interpret, this model views the two members of the conversation as equal participants. This model therefore works very well to understand a face-to-face conversation or text message exchange, for example, where both members of the conversation will have a back-and-forth discussion.

This equal communication model is very different to many others, which see communication as a one-way street where people take the role of either ‘sender’ or ‘receiver’. By contrast, Schramm’s model sees the participants as both sender and receiver of messages.

Principle 3: Communication involves Interpretation

Schramm was insistent that communication is not simply the passing of a packet of information from a sender to a receiver. Instead, he saw that messages must be interpreted in order for them to be understood. In the process of interpretation, however, a lot of meaning can be lost. We call the lost or misinterpretation of information "semantic noise" caused by "semantic barriers". Semantic barriers are specifically the values, beliefs and background knowledge that impact how someone sends and how someone receives messages.

As two-way communication keeps on going in its circular pattern, the semantic noise is ideally reduced because the two communicators can come to shared meaning and give one another further clarification on what they actually mean.

Note: Some people call semantic noise a weakness of this model. However, this model simply shows that semantic noise is possible – so it’s not a weakness. If anything, it’s good that the authors have shown us what it is and how it works.

Principle 4: Communication requires Encoding, Decoding and Interpreting

You can see in the image above that each actor in the communication sequence has three roles: encoding, decoding and interpreting.

Here’s how each step works:

Encoding: When we want to send a message, we need to think about how to craft it to get our message across clearly. We need to think of the right words to say and in what order we should send our messages to communicate our ideas to the message receiver.
Decoding: When we receive a message, we need to decode it. A message may be packaged as text, image, advertisement, speech, etc. When receiving a message, we need to use our reading skills, listening skills, etc. to decode the message so it makes sense to us. Sometimes someone may ‘mishear’ or ‘misread’ a message (perhaps if it were mumbled or written by someone who is not a native speaker), which will interfere with their interpretation.
Interpreting: Now that we understand the medium of communication, we can go about interpreting the message. What does it mean to you? One person may interpret the message in a totally different way to someone else. Or, they may not understand it the same way as the encoder, meaning they have ‘misinterpreted’ the text.

Once someone has decoded and interpreted a message, they can then go about encoding their own message to send back to the original sender. They would in turn go about decoding and interpreting. The cycle continues!

Benefits/Strengths in the Osgood-Schramm Model

Shows how feedback can work: This model works well for explaining cyclical feedback. Other models see communication as being a one-way street, which fail to account for feedback and dialogue. In this model, the speaker can get feedback about their language, jokes, choice of words, etc. so they can try to communicate more and more clearly as the cycle continues.
Recognizes that communication is complex:By accounting for encoding, decoding and interpretation, this model shows how sometimes we can mishear and misinterpret information.
Sees us as active communicators: While other models see people receiving information as passive recipients, this one shows how we’re active in interpreting information we receive.

Disadvantages / Weaknesses in the Osgood-Schramm Model

Doesn’t recognize that communication can be unequal: There are many circumstance where communication may involve one authority figure talking and one (or many) listeners trying to interpret the message. In such instances, communication is much less equal than in Schramm’s model. Therefore, this model doesn’t tend to work in situations where power balances exist. In fact, this model does a poor job overall of understanding how power functions in communication.
Doesn’t work for mass communication: This is another time communication is unequal. One person communicating to many looks very different to the circular one-to-one model proposed in the Osgood-Schramm approach (for a more appropriate approach for mass media, try the Westley-Mclean model or Lasswell’s model of Communication).

Quotes

"The Osgood-Schramm model reminds us that the communication of information is never a simple one-dimensional process whereby the message is encoded, transmitted and decoded as intended." (McCabe, 2009, p. 27)
This model "…showed that the receiver as well as the sender is engaged in a continuous and active act of communication." (Theaker, 2004, p. 22)
"The emergence of this approach meant a clear break with the traditional linear / one-way picture of communication." (Mcquail & Windhall, 2015, p. 20)
"The model is especially useful in describing interpersonal communication but is less suitable for cases without, or with little, feedback." (Mcquail & Windhall, 2015, p. 20)
"The circular nature of the model shows that individuals change roles as they decode the message and by the process of interpretation then recode the message to pass on to another individual." (McCabe, 2009, p. 27)
"A possible point of criticism of this model would lie in the argument that the model conveys a feeling of equality in communication. Very often communication is, on the contrary, fairly unbalanced as far as communication resources, power, and time given to communicate are concerned." (Mcquail & Windhall, 2015, p. 20)

Examples

Ex 1

Jennifer to Sam -"Will you accompany me for a movie ?"

Sam kept mum and did not respond and hence the communication between Sam and Jennifer was not complete. If Sam was not interested for the movie, he could have responded or given the feedback to Jennifer about his unwillingness. According to Schramm’s model, whenever the information reaches the recipient, it becomes his responsibility to give the feedback and let him know if he has downloaded the message in exactly the same manner the speaker wanted. If he is not clear with anything or has any doubts, it must be cleared with the speaker. Thus when the speaker conveys any message to the listener, the listener, decodes the message and once again passes the message to the speaker after understanding it and completing the full circle.

Sender

M↓ ↑M

Receiver

M - Stands for message

Schramm believed that an individual’s knowledge, experience and cultural background also play an important role in communication. Individuals from diverse cultures, religion or background tend to interpret the message in different ways.

Ex 2

Billy to Servant - "Please bring something hot for me to drink as I am suffering from sore throat."

The servant brought him a glass of lukewarm water but Billy actually wanted a cup of hot chocolate coffee. Hence different interpretation by the servant. He was not on the common grounds with Billy and failed to understand his master’s information. It was neither Billy’s nor the servant’s fault but actually the differences in both their backgrounds which was to blame.

Go through another example

Ex 3

John to Teddy -"I get late for my office, please buy me a clock"

Teddy went to a local market and gifted a clock to John and John was never late to office after that. He could have also misinterpreted the message, then how come he could understand his friend’s desire? A Clock is always a clock whether Teddy has to bring it or any other individual has to bring it. A clock can never be confused with a wrist watch or for that matter something else. There are some messages which are more or less same for everyone. They are called as messages with a Denotative meaning which are almost the same for all individuals and in such cases chances of misinterpretation and misunderstanding gets nullified.

Please once again refer to the above situation of John and Teddy and slightly modify the situation. When John wanted a clock, Teddy brought two clocks for him as he was two concerned for John and didn’t want him to get late. In this case John actually wanted a single clock but Teddy brought his emotional quotient and personal affection in between. Such meanings are called Connotative meaning which are affected by emotional factors. A message can also get distorted due to wrong body movements, gestures, facial expressions and many other factors.

To conclude according to this model of communication when a sender passes on the information to the receiver, the receiver must interpret it in the desired form the sender wants and give him the feedback or respond accordingly. Any communication where the sender does not get the feedback, the communication is not complete and thus ineffective.

Sources:

McCabe, S. (2009). Marketing Communications in Tourism and Hospitality: Concepts, Strategies and Cases. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Mcquail, D. & Windhall, S. (2015). Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications. London: Routledge.
Schramm, W. (1955). How communication works. In: Schramm, W. (Ed.). Process and Effects of Mass Communication. Illinois: University of Illinois Press.
Theaker, A. (2004). The Public Relations Handbook. (2nd Ed.) Oxfordshire: Routledge.

Lasswell's Model

2024-03-25T09:57:35.936000Z

Harold Dwight Lasswell, the American political scientist states that a convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions

Who
Says What
In Which Channel
To Whom
With what effect?

This model is about process of communication and its function to society, According to Lasswell there are three functions for communication:

Surveillance of the environment
Correlation of components of society
Cultural transmission between generation

Lasswell model suggests the message flow in a multicultural society with multiple audiences. The flow of message is through various channels. And also this communication model is similar to Aristotle’s communication model. Though Lasswell’s model was developed to analyze mass communication, this model is used for interpersonal communication or group communication to be disseminated message to various groups in various situations.

In this model, the communication component

'Who' refers the research area called "Control Analysis"

Control analysis helps the sender to have all the power.

'Says what' refers to "Content Analysis"

Content analysis is associated to stereotyping and representation of different groups politically. It is also related to the purpose or the ulterior motives of the message.

'In which channel' refers to "Media Analysis"

Media analysis represents which medium should be used to exercise maximum power against the receivers.

'To whom’ refers to "Audience Analysis"

Audience analysis shows who are the target population to be manipulated or brain-washed.

'With What Effect' refers to "Effect Analysis"

Effect analysis is done before the process starts. It is used to predict the effect of message over the target population to be exploited.

Example:

CNN NEWS – A water leak from Japan’s tsunami-crippled nuclear power station resulted in about 100 times the permitted level of radioactive material flowing into the sea, operator Tokyo Electric Power Co said on Saturday.

Who – TEPC Operator

What – Radioactive material flowing into sea

Channel – CNN NEWS (Television medium)

Whom – Public

Effect – Alert the people of japan from the radiation.

Advantages of Lasswell's model:

It is easy and simple
It suits for almost all types of communication
The concept of effect (which can be taken as feedback in some cases)

Disadvantages of Lasswell's model:

Feedback not mentioned
Very simplistic
Noise not mentioned
Linear Model

Berlo's SMCR Model

2024-03-25T09:56:56.031000Z

In 1948, the Bell System Technical Journal published a Communication Cycle model, developed by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver. This model was initially developed to improve technical communication, but would later be applied in many other fields.

In 1960, David Berlo, an American communications theorist, expanded on this linear communication model and created the SMCR Model of Communication. Today, the sender-receiver framework is often used in communication sciences. Lasswell’s communication model, for example, consists of a similar framework.

While the Aristotle model of communication puts the speaker in the central position and suggests that the speaker is the one who drives the entire communication, the Berlo’s model of communication takes into account the emotional aspect of the message.

Berlo’s model includes a number of factors under each of the elements:

Source: The source is situated where the message originates.

Communication skills – It is the skill of the individual to communicate. For example, the ability to read, write, speak, listen etc.
Attitudes – This includes attitudes towards the audience, subject and towards oneself. For example, for the student, the attitude is to learn more and for teachers, it is to help teach.
Knowledge– Communicating also means that the person needs to be knowledgeable about the subject or topic. For e.g. a teacher needs to know about the subject in detail that he or she teaches so that they can communicate properly such that the students understand here.
Note: It refers, not to the general knowledge, but to the knowledge of the subject that the person is communicating and their familiarity with it.
Social system – The social system includes the various aspects of society like values, beliefs, culture, religion and a general understanding of society. It is where the communication takes place.
For example, classrooms differ from country to country just like people’s behaviours and how they communicate, etc.
Note: We can communicate only to the extent that the social system allows. When we communicate, we take the social system into account.
Culture: Culture of a particular society also comes under the social system.
According to this model, people can communicate only if the above requirements are met in the proper or adequate proportion.
Encoder: The sender of the message, from where the message originates, is referred to as the encoder. So the source encodes the message here.

Message

Content – The body of a message, from the beginning to the end, comprises its content. For example, whatever the class teacher teaches in the class, from beginning to end, is the content of the message.
Elements – It includes various things like language, gestures, body language, etc. They constitute all the elements of a particular message. Any content is accompanied by some elements.
Treatment – It refers to the packing of the message and the way in which the message is conveyed or the way in which it is passed on or delivered.
Note: When there is too much treatment, communication will not go smoothly.
Structure– The structure of the message refers to how it is arranged; the way people structure the message into various parts.
Note: Message is the same, but if the structure is not properly arranged then the receiver will not understand the message.
Code– The code of the message refers to the means through which it is sent and in what form. It could be, for example, language, body language, gestures, music, etc. Even culture is a code. Through this, people give and receive messages and communication takes place.
Note: Only when the code is clear, the message will be clear. The wrong usage may lead to misinterpretation.

Channel– It refers to the five sense organs. The following are the five senses:

Hearing
Seeing
Touching
Smelling
Tasting

Communication occurs through one or more of these channels.

Hearing: The use of ears to receive the message. For example, orally transmitted messages, interpersonal communication etc.
Seeing: Visual channels, for example, Watching television so the message is conveyed through the scene/film.
Touching: The sense of touch can be used as a channel to communicate. For example, we touch, buy food, hugging our loved ones,etc.
Smelling: Smell also can be a channel to communicate. For example, perfumes, food, fragrances etc. Charred smell communicates something is burning. People can deduct which food is being cooked by its smell etc.
Tasting : The tongue is a muscular organ used in the act of eat and taste food. For example, while a food is being shared, the communication can happen regarding its taste.

Note: Despite not mentioning a medium, we need to assume that as communication is taking place, channels can be any of the 5 senses or combination.

Decoder : The person who receives the message and decodes it is referred to a decoder.

Receiver: The receiver needs to think all the contents and elements of the source, so as to communicate/responds to sender effectively.;

Berlo’s model believes that for effective communication to take place, the source and the receiver need to be on the same level. Only then communication will happen or take place properly. Hence, the source and the receiver should be similar. For example, if the communication skill of the source is good, then the receiver should have equally good listening skills. It cannot be said that the receiver does not receive the whole message because even though he may receive it, but may not be able to interpret its meaning. For effective communication, the source and the receiver need to be on the same level.

Note: Self-image differs from person to person. For communication, the person should consider the receiver, speak accordingly and give them what they need.

Criticism of Berlo’s SMCR model of communication:

There is a lack of feedback. The effects are practically unknown.
It does not mention the barriers to communication.
There is no room for noise.
It is a rather complex model.
It is a linear model of communication.
It requires people to be on the same level for effective communication to happen. However, that rarely happens in everyday life.
The main drawback of the model is that it omits the usage of sixth sense as a channel of communication, which is an asset to human beings (thinking, understanding, analyzing etc.)

Shannon and Weaver Model

2024-03-25T09:57:51.861000Z

Shannon Weaver model of communication was created in 1948 when Claude Elwood Shannon wrote an article "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" in Bell System Technical Journal with Warren Weaver.

Shannon was an American mathematician whereas Weaver was a scientist. The Mathematical theory later came to be known as Shannon Weaver model of communication or "mother of all models." This model is more technological than other linear models.

Concepts in Shannon Weaver Model

Sender (Information source) – Sender is the person who makes the message, chooses the channel and sends the message.
Encoder (Transmitter) –Encoder is the sender who uses machine, which converts message into signals or binary data. It might also directly refer to the machine.
Channel –Channel is the medium used to send message.
Decoder (Receiver) – Decoder is the machine used to convert signals or binary data into message or the receiver who translates the message from signals.
Receiver (Destination) –Receiver is the person who gets the message or the place where the message must reach. The receiver provides feedback according to the message.
Noise –Noise is the physical disturbances like environment, people, etc. which does not let the message get to the receiver as what is sent.

Explanation of Shannon Weaver Model

The sender encodes the message and sends it to the receiver through a technological channel like telephone and telegraph. The sender converts the message into codes understandable to the machine. The message is sent in codes through a medium.

The receiver has to decode the message before understanding it and interpreting it. The receptor machine can also act as a decoder in some cases. The channel can have noise and the receiver might not have the capacity to decode which might cause problems in communication process.

Here, for instance, brain might be the sender, mouth might be the encoder which encodes to a particular language, air might be the channel, another person’s ear might be the receptor and his brain might be the decoder and receiver.

Similarly, air is the channel here, the noise present in his environment that disturbs them is the noise whereas his response is the feedback. There were only 5 components when the model was made. Noise was added later.

As Shannon was an engineer, this model was first made to improve technical communication, mainly for telephonic communication. It was made to to maximize telephone capacity with minimum noise.

Later, Weaver applied it for all kind of communications to develop effective communication and the model became famous as Shannon Weaver model. In engineering, Shannon’s model is also called information theory and is used academically to calculate transmission through machines and also has a formula.

Example of Shannon Weaver Model

A businessman sends a message via phone text to his worker about a meeting happening about their brand promotion. The worker does not receive the full message because of noise. It goes like this:

Businessman: We have a meeting at the office ("at 8 am" goes missing due to phone network disruption or noise)

Worker (feedback) : At what time?

Here,

Sender: Businessman

Encoder: Telephone network company

Channel: Mobile network

Noise: Missing text due to disruption

Decoder: Mobile phone

Receiver: Worker

The transmission error is the noise in this case. The feedback lets the businessman know that the message reached incomplete. The receiver gets the chance to get the full message only after his feedback.

Levels of Communication Problems

There are three levels of problems of communication according to Shannon Weaver. They are:

1. Technical problem –How a channel causes a problem

2. Semantic problem –Is the meaning of message sent and received very different

3. Effectiveness problem –How effectively does the message cause reaction

Advantages of Shannon Weaver Model

Concept of noise helps in making the communication effective by removing the noise or problem causing noise.
This model takes communication as a two way process. It makes the model applicable in general communication.
Communication is taken as quantifiable in Shannon Weaver model.

Criticisms of Shannon Weaver Model

It can be applied more for interpersonal communication than group communication and mass communication.
Receiver plays the passive part in the communication process as sender plays the primary role that sends messages.
Feedback is taken as less important in comparison to the messages sent by the sender.
The model is taken by some critics as a "misleading misrepresentation of the nature of human communication" as human communication is not mathematical in nature.

Rhetoric Model

2024-03-25T09:55:29.007000Z

Aristotle (384-322 B.C) was a Greek philosopher and writer born in Stagira, Northern Greece. He was also the teacher of Alexander the Great. He studied physics, logic, mathematics, etc.

While exploring the human nature scientifically, Aristotle developed a linear model of communication for oral communication known as Aristotle’s Model of Communication. This is considered as the first model of communication and was proposed before 300 B.C. It is also the is most widely accepted among all communication models.

Aristotle Model is mainly focused on speaker and speech. It can be broadly divided into 5 primary elements: Speaker, Speech, Occasion, Audience and Effect.

The Aristotle’s communication model is a speaker centered model as the speaker has the most important role in it and is the only one active. It is the speaker’s role to deliver a speech to the audience. The role of the audience is passive, influenced by the speech. This makes the communication process one way, from speaker to receiver.

The speaker must organize the speech beforehand, according to the target audience and situation (occasion). The speech must be prepared so that the audience be persuaded or influenced from the speech.

He believed "Rhetoric" is the study of communication and persuasion and different message or speech should be made for different audiences at different situations to get desired effects or to establish a propaganda. This model was highly used to develop public speaking skills and create a propaganda at that time so, it is less focused on intrapersonal or interpersonal communication.

Even if the model is speaker oriented and focuses on audience interaction in communication, there is no concept of feedbacks.

For instance, a politician (speaker) gives a speech to get votes from the civilians (audience) at the time of election (occasion). The civilians only vote if they are influenced by the things the politician says in his speech so the content must be very impressive to influence the mass and the speaker must design the message very carefully.

The speech must be clear as well as the speaker must have a very good non-verbal communication with the audience like eye contact. This example is a classic case of Aristotle Model of Communication depicting all the elements in the model.

Critical Elements of a Good Communicator

Aristotle has given 3 elements that must be present in a good communicator or public speaker. These elements are related to each other and they reinforce the other elements.

Ethos: Ethos is the characteristic which makes you credible in front of the audience. If there is no credibility, the audience will not believe in you and will not be persuaded by you. Expertise and positions also give credibility to a person.

For instance, the mass will not listen to the promises of a corrupt politician, but if a politician is known for his good deeds, there’s a high change his speech will be heard.
Pathos: If what you say matters to them and they can connect with it, then they will be more interested and they will think you are more credible. Emotional bonds will make the audience captivated and they feel the speaker is one of their own people.

For instance, if people of a village needs water and the politician tells them that he will help in building roads, the people will not get influenced but might be more influenced if he says he’ll build a dam for drinking water and irrigation.
Logos: Logos is logic. People believe in you only if they understand what you are trying to say. People find logic in everything. If there is no logic behind the speaker’s work or time, they do not want to get involved. Everybody has a sense of reason. You must present facts to the audience for them to believe in you.

For example, a presenter using factual data in an awareness program will attract the audience’s attention and will make them believe in the need of awareness in the particular matter.

There are few criticisms around this model. Some of them are:

There is no concept of feedback, it is one way from speaker to audience.
There is no concept of communication failure like noise and barriers.
This model can only be used in public speaking.

Introduction to Communication Models

2024-03-25T09:55:31.681000Z

Models of communication simplify the complex process of communication by providing a visual representation of the various aspects of a communication encounter. Some models explain communication in more detail than others, but even the most complex model still doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a communication encounter. Models still serve a valuable purpose for students of communication because they allow us to see specific concepts and steps within the process of communication, define communication, and apply communication concepts. When you become aware of how communication functions, you can think more deliberately through your communication encounters, which can help you better prepare for future communication and learn from your previous communication. The three models of communication discussed here are the transmission, interaction, and transaction models.

Although these models of communication differ, they contain some common elements. The first two models, the transmission model and the interaction model, include the following parts: participants, messages, encoding, decoding, and channels. In communication models, the participants are the senders and/or receivers of messages in a communication encounter. The message is the verbal or nonverbal content being conveyed from sender to receiver. For example, when you say "Hello!" to your friend, you are sending a message of greeting that will be received by your friend.

The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive, and understand messages is the encoding and decoding process. Encoding is the process of turning thoughts into communication. As we will learn later, the level of conscious thought that goes into encoding messages varies. Decoding is the process of turning communication into thoughts. For example, you may realize you’re hungry and encode the following message to send to your roommate: "I’m hungry. Do you want to get pizza tonight?" As your roommate receives the message, they decode your communication and turn it back into thoughts in order to make meaning out of it. Of course, we don’t just communicate verbally—we have various options, or channels for communication. Encoded messages are sent through a channel, or a sensory route on which a message travels, to the receiver for decoding. While communication can be sent and received using any sensory route (sight, smell, touch, taste, or sound), most communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory (sound) channels. If your roommate has headphones on and is engrossed in a video game, you may need to get their attention by waving your hands before you can ask them about dinner.

Today, the main models of communication are can be split into three categories:

Linear model
Interactive model
Transactional model

Linear model of communication: The linear or transmission model of communication describes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990). This model focuses on the sender and message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model, this role is viewed as more of a target or end point rather than part of an ongoing process. We are left to presume that the receiver either successfully receives and understands the message or does not. The scholars who designed this model extended on a linear model proposed by Aristotle centuries before that included a speaker, message, and hearer. They were also influenced by the advent and spread of new communication technologies of the time such as telegraphy and radio, and you can probably see these technical influences within the model (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). Think of how a radio message is sent from a person in the radio studio to you listening in your car. The sender is the radio announcer who encodes a verbal message that is transmitted by a radio tower through electromagnetic waves (the channel) and eventually reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via an antenna and speakers in order to be decoded. The radio announcer doesn’t really know if you receive their message or not, but if the equipment is working and the channel is free of static, then there is a good chance that the message was successfully received.

Although the transmission model may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us today, the creation of this model allowed scholars to examine the communication process in new ways, which eventually led to more complex models and theories of communication. Its limitations are easy to see if you pause to think about the beliefs about communication, or assumptions, made in this model. First, this model assumes that communication only goes in one direction. Here, a person can be a sender or receiver, but not both. This is problematic because communication in action is more dynamic than the linear model suggests. In action, communication involves a give and take between senders and receivers in which listeners are not simply passive receptacles for a sender’s message. This model is also limited because it provides only one channel for only one message. Finally, it implies that messages themselves are clear-cut with a distinct beginning and a distinct end. However, communication is rarely, if ever, as neat and tidy as a linear model would suggest.

Interactive model of communication: The interactive or interaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts (Schramm, 1997). Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interactive model incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way process. Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages. For example, your instructor may respond to a point you raise during class discussion or you may point to the sofa when your roommate asks you where the remote control is. The inclusion of a feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going. Although this seems like a perceptible and deliberate process, we alternate between the roles of sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought.

The interactive model is also less message focused and more interaction focused. While the linear model focused on how a message was transmitted and whether or not it was received, the interactive model is more concerned with the communication process itself. In fact, this model acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time that many of them may not even be received. Some messages are also unintentionally sent. Therefore, communication isn’t judged effective or ineffective in this model based on whether or not a single message was successfully transmitted and received.

The interactive model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout, temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication. Imagine the different physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may affect your communication. I have had job interviews over the phone, crowded around a table with eight interviewers, and sitting with few people around an extra large conference table. I’ve also been walked around an office to unexpectedly interview one-on-one, in succession, with multiple members of a search committee over a period of three hours. Whether it’s the size of the room or other environmental factors, it’s important to consider the role that physical context plays in our communication. Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication. Seemingly positive psychological states, like experiencing the emotion of love, can also affect communication. Feedback and context help make the interaction model a more useful illustration of the communication process, but the transaction model views communication as a powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual communication encounters.

Transaction model of communication: As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages like computers, and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating because communication is more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the transmission and interaction models in significant ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970). The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in dialogue to create communities.

The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ significantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators. Unlike the interactive model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. This is an important addition to the model because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on the communication we are simultaneously receiving from our communication partner.

The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance or impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on message transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication views communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific interactions occur, it must account for contextual influences outside of a single interaction. To do this, the transaction model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence our communication encounters.

Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial and error. We may not even know we are breaking a social norm until we notice people looking at us strangely or someone corrects or teases us. Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just met versus someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be more highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we have an established relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules more easily. Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. We all have multiple cultural identities that influence our communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have been historically marginalized, are regularly aware of how their cultural identities influence their communication and influence how others communicate with them. Conversely, people with identities that are dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their cultural identities play in their communication. Cultural context is influenced by numerous aspects of our identities and is not limited to race or ethnicity.

Communication models are authentic outcomes of systematic study of various aspects of communication. A model of communication gives a wholesome understanding of a system or structure by which people can understand similar systems or structure.

Link: Click to see comparison of various communication models

Quick Recap

Introduction to Communication Models: Purpose is to simplify the complex communication process, aided by visual representation for understanding.
Three Models of Communication: Transmission model, Interaction model, Transaction model.
Transmission Model of Communication: Describes communication as a linear, one-way process focusing on sender, message, and receiver. Influenced by technological advancements like telegraphy and radio, it assumes one-directional communication with a single channel for a message.
Interaction Model of Communication: Describes communication as a process with alternating sender-receivers, incorporating feedback for an interactive, two-way process. Shifts focus from messages to the communication process, considering physical and psychological context and acknowledging the dynamic, give-and-take nature of communication.
Transaction Model of Communication: Describes communication as a process generating social realities, where participants are communicators acting as simultaneous senders and receivers. Allows for adaptation based on simultaneous reception in a more complex context considering social, relational, and cultural influences. Social context involves stated rules and unstated norms, relational context includes interpersonal history and relationship type, and cultural context encompasses various aspects of identities.
Conclusion: Models are authentic outcomes of systematic study of communication, providing a wholesome understanding of systems or structures and aiding in understanding similar systems or structures.

Sources:

Barnlund, D. C., "A Transactional Model of Communication," in Foundations of Communication Theory, eds. Kenneth K. Sereno and C. David Mortensen (New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1970), 83–92.
Ellis, R. and Ann McClintock, You Take My Meaning: Theory into Practice in Human Communication (London: Edward Arnold, 1990), 71.
Schramm, W., The Beginnings of Communication Study in America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997).
Shannon, C. and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1949), 16.
Thurlow, C., Laura Lengel, and Alice Tomic, Computer Mediated Communication: Social Interaction and the Internet (London: Sage, 2004), 14.

The 7 Cs of Communication

2024-03-25T09:55:35.342000Z

The seven C’s of communication is a list of principles for written and spoken communications to ensure that they are effective. The seven C’s are: clear, correct, complete, concrete, concise, considered and courteous.

The seven C’s of communication is a list of principles that you should ensure all of your communications adhere to. Their purpose is to help ensure that the person you’re communicating with hears what you’re trying to say. The seven C’s are: clear, concise, concrete, correct, coherent, complete, and courteous.

Clear

There are several stages to clarity.

Firstly, it’s important to be clear about the purpose of the message you’re delivering. The recipient should be made aware of why they are receiving the message and what you’re trying to achieve by delivering it. If there are multiple goals, each should be laid out separately.

Secondly, it’s essential that the content of the communication is itself clear. You should avoid jargon, use simple language, use simple structures and focus on the core points of your message.

Concise

When communicating messages of this nature it’s important to stick to the point and keep your messages short and simple. Don’t use 10 words if you can use five. Don’t repeat your messages.

The more you say, the more risk there is of confusion. Avoid that risk by focusing solely on the key points you need to deliver

Concrete

When shaping your communication you must ensure that you are specific and that the logic and messages that you’re using fit together, build on each other and support each other. Your arguments should be based on solid facts and opinions from credible sources and you should share irrefutable data to support your argument.

It may be important to help bring the solid nature of what you’ve created to life for your audience through examples that show the relevance of your messages for them as individuals.

Correct

It’s essential that both the factual information and the language and grammar you use are correct. If your audience spots errors in either, they will be distracted and your credibility will be greatly reduced. This will reduce the effectiveness of your communication.

Coherent

The last of the 7 Cs of communication is coherence. If your communications are not coherent they will not be effective. To help make sure your communications are coherent you should have a logical flow and your style, tone and language should be consistent throughout.

In addition to making sure that each communication you issue is coherent within itself, you should also ensure consistency of message when delivering multiple communications.

Complete

Completeness is often one of the most important of the 7 Cs of communication.

When creating a message, it’s important to give the recipient all of the information they need to follow your line of reasoning and to reach the same conclusions you have. This level of detail will be different in different situations, and you should adjust your communications accordingly.

In addition, you should make things as easy as possible for the recipient. For example, if you are issuing a "call to action", provide explicit guidance on that action. Increasingly it’s common to include things like hyperlinks in written communications or to attach FAQs, both of which help audiences access a complete set of information while also ensuring that core communications focus on core messages.

Courteous

You can increase the effectiveness of your communications by being polite and showing your audience that you respect them. Your messages should be friendly, professional, considerate, respectful, open and honest.

To help ensure you are courteous, you should always use some empathy and consider your messages from the point of view of the audience.

All of us communicate every day. The better we communicate, the more credibility we’ll have with our clients, our boss, and our colleagues. Use the 7 Cs of Communication as a checklist for all of your communication. By doing this, you’ll stay clear, concise, concrete, correct, coherent, complete, and courteous.

Quick recap

Communication Barriers

2024-03-25T09:55:40.978000Z

Communication is one of our basic needs. We require to communicate with many people for personal and professional purpose. But while communicating we may face many hurdles or problems. Sometimes the message is not passed properly or gets lost. There are chances of misunderstanding between the sender or the receiver. Sometimes language used in the communication is not understood properly. This results into Communication breakdown or communication failure. There are many reasons behind the problems in the communication process.

Definition of a communication barrier: ‘Any obstacle or problem in the process of communication which hinders/obstructs the process of communication is called a barrier.’

Barriers are part of process of Communication. Whenever we are communicating we encode and decode. We use various channels for passing messages. At any level or at any moment or stage there can be problems in communication process. Sometimes the sender may not use proper language that the receiver will understand. Receiver may not be able to Decode properly. There can be lot of noise in the surrounding which can disturb us. It rarely happens that barriers do not arise in the communication process. Many times barriers arise in the minds of the sender and receiver. The intended messages are not sent to the receivers .

Types of Barriers: We face many barriers while communicating. These barriers can create obstacles in the communication process. These barriers are classified into the following types.

Physical or Environmental Barriers: The barriers in the surrounding or in the environment are the physical barriers.
Language/Semantic/Linguistic Barriers: Barriers arising due to the different language or differences in language can create problems in communication. Semantic Barriers means the problems arising because of the different meanings of the words.
Psychological Barriers: Barriers or problems arising due to the stress or psychological problems are psychological barriers. It is difficult to accept and overcome these barriers.
Socio-Cultural Barriers: Due to differences in social status or cultural barriers many times we face differences in communication. These are socio-cultural barriers.

Physical Barriers: Many barriers arise in the surroundings or our environment. These barriers create problems or confusion in communication.

Noise: Traffic Noise or noise of machines in factory create disturbances in communication. Noise pollution is biggest contributors of environment pollution in India.
Time and Distance: Physical distances between people can create major problems in communication. Time zones around the world are not same. Due to differences in timings between countries we have to adjust with the time difference of that country.
Defects in Communication Systems: Many times the instruments or machines used in communication such as Telephones, Fax or Computer can develop problems. The network of Internet can fail or the Mike or Microphone used in the programmes can create loud noise. Due to excess rains or natural calamity it becomes difficult to use the instruments properly. The failure of Electronic power also results into communication loss or messages are not sent properly.
Wrong Selection of Medium: Medium means the objects used in communication eg. Emails, Mobile Phones or Telephones, etc. The correct medium is necessary. The improper use of some machines such as Emails can delay the messages.
High Temperature and Humidity: Excess Temperature or heat or cold Temperature create difficulties in communication

Many times human physical defects such as stammering, bad hearing, failure of communication channels and bad handwriting also create misunderstanding in learning the message.

Language Barriers: Barriers arising due to differences in languages, words meaning or pronunciation can create confusion among the people. Linguistic means related to the language. Semantic means the meaning of the words.Following are some of the examples of language barriers.

Different languages or lack of common language can create obstacles in Communication. A person who does not understand the native language or even foreign language cannot communicate well. This becomes very difficult situation.
Multiplicity of words: words can have different meanings. Word power is gift to human beings but at the same times multiple meaning or spellings of the words can create the problems in communication.
Words with similar pronunciation but different meaning [Homophones]also create problems in communication. E.g. Except-accept, fair-fare, council-counsel,principal- princip le[e tc].
Jargon words[Technical words]used by professionals such as Engineers/Doctors or any other professionals. Many times, jargon words are used unintentionally. But common people or those who do not understand the meaning of these words face problems.
Bypassed Instructions: Means many times short cuts are used while passing the messages. E.g., A manager ordered the newly appointed secretary to go and burn the CD. She literally burned it while all he meant was to copy the CD.

Psychological Barriers:

Psyche means mind. Psychological barriers arise in the minds. Human mind it very complex thing to understand. We face many times some conflicts due to situations or surrounding events. So these barriers are bound to arise. But the real problem is that people do not accept that these barriers exists in their minds. Due to status, old age and ego problems many times psychological barriers are created. These are difficult to overcome.Because people do not accept that they face barriers or they lack proper understanding to face the world. The following are situations or examples of psychological barriers.

Ego: `I’ Attitude means I am great feeling can create barrier in mind. Ego barriers create conflict in human relations.
Prejudice: bias[wrong opinion] about people on the basis of community, caste, religions or on personal basis is very negative for communication. Prejudice can hamper the communicat io n.
Emotions and feelings : Emotional Disturbances of the sender or receiver can distort[change] the communication .
Halo Effect: like or dislike about a person can create halo or horn effect. This can affect communicat io n.
Self Image: Positive or Negative image about self is the way of looking at the world. Negative self-image can destroy or hamper communication . Such people always think negatively and do not look at the things or events properly.
Filtering in Messages: Messages are filtered [ changed ] intentionally. We always try to defend ourselves or protect ourselves during some problems so that many times messages are changed by the inferiors
Closed Mind: Most of the time our minds are closed or not able to learn new things. With old age or change in attitude this problem is observed. This is also a very barrier in communicat io n.
Status: Status create barriers in the employees . Higher or lower status create obstacles in thinking or mixing with people. People keep distance while communicating due to status barriers.
Perceptions: The way we look at the world or attitude determines our Communication strategy. Wrong or negative perceptions can create difficulty in communication . People who have negative perceptions or think negatively look at every thing or event negatively.
Poor Retention: ability to retain the message or remember is important. But if it is poor then communication becomes difficult.
Interest and Attitudes: Interests and Attitudes of people determines communication strategy. Lack of interest or wrong attitude can lead improper communication.
Day-Dreaming: Many students have habits of dreaming or thinking about something else when some lecture is going on or talk is going on. This obstructs the communication and messages are not reached properly.

Socio-Cultural Barriers:

Culture is way of life, values or principles .Cultural differences between people can create barriers . Different religious practices are followed around the world. Due to many time differe nc es in t he c ult ure ca n c reate mis under sta nd ing in co mmunic at io n. D ue to globalization and liberalized policies in business, people around the world are travelling and working in multinational corporates or companies. This led to mixing or intermingling between people But due to differences in language, religious practices, dressing styles, food habits many times people get confused and are not able to understand each other properly. This led to communication failure. The following are examples or socio-cultural barriers.

Concept of Time: The time is not perceived similarly across the cultures. In Western culture Time is important. In Asian culture Time is taken leisurely. The concept of punctuality differs in cultures.
Assumptions about social strata or caste system. Caste system is observed in India. But in every culture, some kind or differences in the society in the form of religion, community differences or sects or class division is observed. We should not always assume someone as superior or inferior because of caste or class system.
Etiquettes and Mannerisms: In every society or cultures different types of mannerisms are observed. This includes rule of behaviors or how to follow certain code of conduct . Different forms of address and salutation or different methods of dressing (formal or informal wearing) are observed. This can be confusing sometimes.
Food preparation method or serving methods are not the same. There are certain expected norms of eating food in meeting .These are called dining etiquettes.
Body language (Non-verbal communication) methods around the world are not same. There can be misunderstandings because of this.
Proximity (Concept of Space) differs from culture to culture. In some culture close distance between people is not approved. In some culture close distance is accepted.
Value system is not same across the cultures.Values or good behavior or ethical principles guide in our life. But the methods of these value system is not same around the world.

How to overcome the Barriers?

Physical Barriers: By overcoming defects in communication system ,by controlling noise ,physical distance Physical Barriers can be overcome to some extent. Though we can’t overcome some physical barriers such as time , distance or defects in machine, we can control Physical barriers to some extent. Efforts are required by all people to overcome physical barriers.

Language Barrier: Lot of efforts are required to overcome Language Barriers. There should be respect for any language before learning new language. It requires man to learn foreign language. So learning the correct pronunciation and accent and improving vocabulary [word power]we can master a language. We have to improve listening skills and then only language can be understood properly.

Psychological Barriers: It is true that psychological barriers are difficult to overcome or solve. There must be acceptance of ones mistakes or limitations. This will led to understanding of human life. People do not accept their faults or limitations. This leads to many problems. We have to be humble and respectful towards other people. Many times the sender and the receiver are not in proper frame of mind. So this creates problems in Communication. Misunderstanding, lack of interests, mental and physical disturbance can cause problems because of that. Efforts should be taken by superiors and all reporting people to overcome the problems.

Socio–Cultural Barriers: These Barriers can be overcome by proper study of other cultures. It is very much essential to learn new cultural values and observing people and accepting their cultures .We have to develop open mindedness in this regard. We have to understand the mannerisms of other people.

Quick recap

Communication, a fundamental human need for personal and professional interactions, is susceptible to various obstacles leading to breakdowns in the process.
Defined as barriers, these impediments can occur at different stages, involving physical/environmental, language/semantic/linguistic, psychological, and socio-cultural factors.
Physical barriers include noise, time, distance, and defects in communication systems.
Language barriers arise from linguistic differences, semantic issues, and the use of jargon.
Psychological barriers involve ego, prejudice, emotions, self-image, and closed minds.
Socio-cultural barriers stem from cultural variations, time perceptions, assumptions about social strata, etiquette differences, food practices, non-verbal communication, proximity, and varying value systems.
Overcoming these barriers requires efforts such as improving communication systems, respecting languages, enhancing listening skills, accepting psychological limitations, and studying diverse cultures to foster open-mindedness.

Communication: Elements and Types

2024-03-25T09:26:01.799000Z

Whenever you've had a conversation, texted a friend, or given a business presentation, you have engaged in communication. Any time two or more people get together to exchange messages, they are engaging in this basic process. Although it seems simple, communication is actually quite complex and has a number of components.

Communication Process

The term communication process refers to the exchange of information (a message) between two or more people. For communication to succeed, both parties must be able to exchange information and understand each other. If the flow of information is blocked for some reason or the parties cannot make themselves understood, then communication fails.

Elements in the Communication Process

Below given are the elements in the communication process.

The Sender: The communication process begins with the sender, who is also called the communicator or source. The sender has some kind of information — a command, request, question, or idea — that he or she wants to present to others. For that message to be received, the sender must first encode the message in a form that can be understood, such as by the use of a common language or industry jargon, and then transmit it.
The Receiver: The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the interpreter. To comprehend the information from the sender, the receiver must first be able to receive the sender's information and then decode or interpret it.
The Message: The message or content is the information that the sender wants to relay to the receiver. Additional subtext can be conveyed through body language and tone of voice. Put all three elements together — sender, receiver, and message — and you have the communication process at its most basic.
The Medium: Also called the channel, the medium is the means by which a message is transmitted. Text messages, for example, are transmitted through the medium of cell phones.
Feedback: The communication process reaches its final point when the message has been successfully transmitted, received, and understood. The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, indicating comprehension. Feedback may be direct, such as a written or verbal response, or it may take the form of an act or deed in response (indirect).

Types of Communication

Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself using internal vocalization or reflective thinking. Like other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication is triggered by some internal or external stimulus. We may, for example, communicate with our self about what we want to eat due to the internal stimulus of hunger, or we may react intrapersonally to an event we witness. Unlike other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication takes place only inside our heads. The other forms of communication must be perceived by someone else to count as communication.

So what is the point of intrapersonal communication if no one else even sees it? Intrapersonal communication serves several social functions. Internal vocalization, or talking to ourselves, can help us achieve or maintain social adjustment. For example, a person may use self-talk to calm himself down in a stressful situation, or a shy person may remind herself to smile during a social event. Intrapersonal communication also helps build and maintain our self-concept.

We form an understanding of who we are based on how other people communicate with us and how we process that communication intrapersonally. The shy person in the earlier example probably internalized shyness as a part of her self-concept because other people associated her communication behaviors with shyness and may have even labeled her "shy" before she had a firm grasp on what that meant.
We also use intrapersonal communication or "self-talk" to let off steam, process emotions, think through something, or rehearse what we plan to say or do in the future. As with the other forms of communication, competent intrapersonal communication helps facilitate social interaction and can enhance our well-being. Conversely, the breakdown in the ability of a person to intrapersonally communicate is associated with mental illness.

Sometimes we intrapersonally communicate for the fun of it. We have all had the experience of laughing aloud because we thought of something funny. We also communicate intrapersonally to pass time. In both of these cases, intrapersonal communication is usually unplanned and doesn’t include a clearly defined goal.

We can, however, engage in more intentional intrapersonal communication. In fact, deliberate self-reflection can help us become more competent communicators as we become more mindful of our own behaviors. For example, your internal voice may praise or scold you based on a thought or action.
Of the forms of communication, intrapersonal communication has received the least amount of formal study. It is rare to find courses devoted to the topic, and it is generally separated from the remaining four types of communication. The main distinction is that intrapersonal communication is not created with the intention that another person will perceive it. In all the other levels, the fact that the communicator anticipates consumption of their message is very important.

Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another. Interpersonal communication builds, maintains, and ends our relationships, and we spend more time engaged in interpersonal communication than the other forms of communication. Interpersonal communication occurs in various contexts and is addressed in subfields of study within communication studies such as intercultural communication, organizational communication, health communication, and computer-mediated communication. After all, interpersonal relationships exist in all those contexts.

Interpersonal communication can be planned or unplanned, but since it is interactive, it is usually more structured and influenced by social expectations than intrapersonal communication. Interpersonal communication is also more goal oriented than intrapersonal communication and fulfills instrumental and relational needs. In terms of instrumental needs, the goal may be as minor as greeting someone to fulfill a morning ritual or as major as conveying your desire to be in a committed relationship with someone. Interpersonal communication meets relational needs by communicating the uniqueness of a specific relationship. Since this form of communication deals so directly with our personal relationships and is the most common form of communication, instances of miscommunication and communication conflict most frequently occur here. Couples, bosses and employees, and family members all have to engage in complex interpersonal communication, and it doesn’t always go well. In order to be a competent interpersonal communicator, you need conflict management skills and listening skills, among others, to maintain positive relationships.

Group communication is communication among three or more people interacting to achieve a shared goal. You have likely worked in groups in high school and college, and if you’re like most students, you didn’t enjoy it. Even though it can be frustrating, group work in an academic setting provides useful experience and preparation for group work in professional settings. Organizations have been moving toward more team-based work models, and whether we like it or not, groups are an integral part of people’s lives. Therefore the study of group communication is valuable in many contexts.

Group communication is more intentional and formal than interpersonal communication. Unlike interpersonal relationships, which are voluntary, individuals in a group are often assigned to their position within a group. Additionally, group communication is often task focused, meaning that members of the group work together for an explicit purpose or goal that affects each member of the group. Goal-oriented communication in interpersonal interactions usually relates to one person; for example, I may ask my friend to help me move this weekend. Goal- oriented communication at the group level usually focuses on a task assigned to the whole group; for example, a group of people may be tasked to figure out a plan for moving a business from one office to another.
You know from previous experience working in groups that having more communicators usually leads to more complicated interactions. Some of the challenges of group communication relate to task-oriented interactions, such as deciding who will complete each part of a larger project. But many challenges stem from interpersonal conflict or misunderstandings among group members. Since group members also communicate with and relate to each other interpersonally and may have preexisting relationships or develop them during the course of group interaction, elements of interpersonal communication occur within group communication too.

Public communication is a sender-focused form of communication in which one person is typically responsible for conveying information to an audience. Public speaking is something that many people fear, or at least don’t enjoy. But, just like group communication, public speaking is an important part of our academic, professional, and civic lives. When compared to interpersonal and group communication, public communication is the most consistently intentional, formal, and goal-oriented form of communication we have discussed so far.

Public communication, at least in Western societies, is also more sender focused than interpersonal or group communication. It is precisely this formality and focus on the sender that makes many new and experienced public speakers anxious at the thought of facing an audience. One way to begin to manage anxiety toward public speaking is to begin to see connections between public speaking and other forms of communication with which we are more familiar and comfortable. Despite being formal, public speaking is very similar to the conversations that we have in our daily interactions. For example, although public speakers don’t necessarily develop individual relationships with audience members, they still have the benefit of being face-to-face with them so they can receive verbal and nonverbal feedback.

Public communication becomes mass communication when it is transmitted to many people through print or electronic media. Print media such as newspapers and magazines continue to be an important channel for mass communication, although they have suffered much in the past decade due in part to the rise of electronic media. Television, websites, blogs, and social media are mass communication channels that you probably engage with regularly. Radio, podcasts, and books are other examples of mass media. The technology required to send mass communication messages distinguishes it from the other forms of communication. A certain amount of intentionality goes into transmitting a mass communication message since it usually requires one or more extra steps to convey the message. This may involve pressing "Enter" to send a Facebook message or involve an entire crew of camera people, sound engineers, and production assistants to produce a television show. Even though the messages must be intentionally transmitted through technology, the intentionality and goals of the person actually creating the message, such as the writer, television host, or talk show guest, vary greatly. The president’s State of the Union address is a mass communication message that is very formal, goal oriented, and intentional, but a president’s verbal gaffe during a news interview is not.

Mass communication differs from other forms of communication in terms of the personal connection between participants. Even though creating the illusion of a personal connection is often a goal of those who create mass communication messages, the relational aspect of interpersonal and group communication isn’t inherent within this form of communication. Unlike interpersonal, group, and public communication, there is no immediate verbal and nonverbal feedback loop in mass communication. Of course you could write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or send an e-mail to a television or radio broadcaster in response to a story, but the immediate feedback available in face-to-face interactions is not present. With new media technologies like Twitter, blogs, and Facebook, feedback is becoming more immediate. Individuals can now tweet directly "at" (@) someone and use hashtags (#) to direct feedback to mass communication sources. Many radio and television hosts and news organizations specifically invite feedback from viewers/listeners via social media and may even share the feedback on the air.
Technological advances such as the printing press, television, and the more recent digital revolution have made mass communication a prominent feature of our daily lives. The technology to mass-produce and distribute communication messages brings with it the power for one voice or a series of voices to reach and affect many people. This power makes mass communication different from the other levels of communication. While there is potential for unethical communication at all the other levels, the potential consequences of unethical mass communication are important to consider. Communication scholars who focus on mass communication and media often take a critical approach in order to examine how media shapes our culture and who is included and excluded in various mediated messages.

Quick recap

Communication is a complex process with various forms serving distinct purposes.
The communication process involves participants like sender, receiver, message, medium, and feedback.
Intrapersonal communication involves internal vocalization, aiding social adjustment and self-concept.
Interpersonal communication occurs between individuals, building, maintaining, or ending relationships.
Group communication, among three or more people with shared goals, is intentional and formal.
Public communication is sender-focused, intentional, and resembles larger-scale everyday conversations.
Mass communication, transmitted through print or electronic media, lacks an immediate feedback loop. Mass communication raises critical questions about its impact on culture and inclusivity.
These diverse communication types collectively shape interactions and influence societal dynamics.

Introduction to Communication

2024-03-25T09:55:37.794000Z

Context

How did humans develop the ability to communicate? Are humans the only creatures on earth that communicate? What purpose does communication serve in our lives? Answers to these historical, anthropological, and social-scientific questions provide part of the diversity of knowledge that makes up the field of communication studies. As a student of communication, you know that there is much more to the field than public speaking, even though the origins of communication studies are traced back thousands of years to ancient Greek philosophers and teachers like Plato and Aristotle who were the first to systematically study and write about speech.

Communication has been called the most practical of the academic disciplines. Even the most theoretical and philosophical communication scholars are also practitioners of communication, and even though you have likely never taken another communication studies class, you have a lifetime of experience communicating. This experiential knowledge provides a useful foundation and a starting point from which you can build the knowledge and practice the skills necessary to become a more competent and ethical communicator.

Introduction to Communication

Communication is one of those human activities that everyone recognises but few can define satisfactorily. Communication is talking to one another, it is television, it is spreading information, it is our hair style, it is literary criticism: the list is endless. This is one of the problems facing academics: can we properly apply the term ‘a subject of study’ to something as diverse and multi-faceted as human communication actually is? Is there any hope of linking the study of, say, facial expression with literary criticism? Is it even an exercise worth attempting? The doubts that lie behind questions like these may give rise to the view that communication is not a subject, in the normal academic sense of the word, but is a multi-disciplinary area of study.

The word "communicate" comes from the Latin verb "communicare," which means "to share, communicate, impart, inform," literally "to make common," related to "communis" meaning "common, public, general".

Communication is a learned skill. However, while most people are born with the physical ability to talk, not all can communicate well unless they make special efforts to develop and refine this skill further. Very often, we take the ease with which we communicate with each other for granted, so much so that we sometimes forget how complex the communication process actually is.

Human Communication Context

Have you ever wondered why some people can communicate so well while others fail to get their message across? What are the elements that must be present in the communication process before it can be successful and effective? Well, communication has been defined as the act of giving, receiving or exchanging information, ideas and opinions so that the message is completely understood by both parties. Look at the illustration below. The illustration shows clearly that in a communication process, there must be a sender who speaks or sends a message, and a receiver who listens or receives the message.

The sender sends a message with a certain intention in mind. The receiver of the message tries to understand and interpret the message sent. He then gives feedback to the original sender, who in turn interprets the feedback. This process, repeated continuously, constitutes communication.

Clearly, there are several major elements in the communication process a sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, context. There is both a speaker’s intention to convey a message and a listenerÊs reception of what has been said. Thus, listening skills are just as important as speaking skills in order for communication to be effective.

Organisational Context

Communication establishes relationships and makes organizing possible. Every message has a purpose or objective. The sender intends -- whether consciously or unconsciously -- to accomplish something by communicating. In organizational contexts, messages typically have a definite objective: to motivate, to inform, to teach, to persuade, to entertain, or to inspire. This definite purpose is, in fact, one of the principal differences between casual conversation and managerial communication. Effective communication in the organization centers on well-defined objectives that support the organization's goals and mission.

Example scenario: Supervisors strive to achieve understanding among parties to their communications. Organisational communication establishes a pattern of formal communication channels to carry information vertically and horizontally. To ensure efficient and effective accomplishment of objectives, information is exchanged. Information is passed upward from employees to supervisors and laterally to adjacent departments. Instructions relating to the performance of the department and policies for conducting business are conveyed downward from supervisors to employees.The organisation carries information from within the department back up to top management. Management furnishes information about how things are going, notifies the supervisor of what the problems are, and provides requests for clarification and help. Supervisors, in turn, keep their employees informed and render assistance. Supervisors continually facilitate the process of gaining necessary clarification and problem solving; both up and down the organisation Also, supervisors communicate with sources outside the organisation, such as vendors and customers.

Definitions

The term communication process refers to the exchange of information (a message) between two or more people. For communication to succeed, both parties must be able to exchange information and understand each other. If the flow of information is blocked for some reason or the parties cannot make themselves understood, then communication fails.
Communication is the process of generating meaning by sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts.
The process of using symbols to exchange meaning.
Social interaction through messages.

These definitions build on other definitions of communication that have been rephrased and refined over many years.

Schools of Communication

There are two main schools in the study of communication. The first sees communication as the transmission of messages. It is concerned with how senders and receivers encode and decode, with how transmitters use the channels and media of communication. It is concerned with matters like efficiency and accuracy. It sees communication as a process by which one person affects the behaviour or state of mind of another. If the effect is different from or smaller than that which was intended, this school tends to talk in terms of communication failure, and to look to the stages in the process to find out where the failure occurred. For the sake of convenience I shall refer to this as the ‘process’ school.

The second school sees communication as the production and exchange of meanings. It is concerned with how messages, or texts, interact with people in order to produce meanings; that is, it is concerned with the role of texts in our culture. It uses terms like signification, and does not consider misunderstandings to be necessarily evidence of communication failure—they may result from cultural differences between sender and receiver. For this school, the study of communication is the study of text and culture. The main method of study is semiotics (the science of signs and meanings), hence referred to as the ‘semiotic' school.

Brief History of Communication

Even though all animals communicate, as human beings we have a special capacity to use symbols to communicate about things outside our immediate temporal and spatial reality. For example, we have the capacity to use abstract symbols, like the word education, to discuss a concept that encapsulates many aspects of teaching and learning. We can also reflect on the past and imagine our future. The ability to think outside our immediate reality is what allows us to create elaborate belief systems, art, philosophy, and academic theories. It’s true that you can teach a gorilla to sign words like food and baby, but its ability to use symbols doesn’t extend to the same level of abstraction as ours. However, humans haven’t always had the sophisticated communication systems that we do today.

Some scholars speculate that humans’ first words were onomatopoetic. You may remember from your English classes that onomatopoeia refers to words that sound like that to which they refer—words like boing, drip, gurgle, swoosh, and whack. Just think about how a prehistoric human could have communicated a lot using these words and hand gestures. He or she could use gurgle to alert others to the presence of water or swoosh and whack to recount what happened on a hunt. In any case, this primitive ability to communicate provided an evolutionary advantage. Those humans who could talk were able to cooperate, share information, make better tools, impress mates, or warn others of danger, which led them to have more offspring who were also more predisposed to communicate.

Talking Era

This eventually led to the development of a "Talking Culture" during the "Talking Era." During this 150,000 year period of human existence, ranging from 180,000 BCE to 3500 BCE, talking was the only medium of communication, aside from gestures, that humans had.

Manuscript Era

The beginning of the "Manuscript Era," around 3500 BCE, marked the turn from oral to written culture. This evolution in communication corresponded with a shift to a more settled, agrarian way of life. As hunter-gatherers settled into small villages and began to plan ahead for how to plant, store, protect, and trade or sell their food, they needed accounting systems to keep track of their materials and record transactions. While such transactions were initially tracked with actual objects that symbolized an amount—for example, five pebbles represented five measures of grain—symbols, likely carved into clay, later served as the primary method of record keeping. In this case, five dots might equal five measures of grain.

During this period, villages also developed class systems as more successful farmers turned businessmen prospered and took leadership positions. Religion also became more complex, and a new class of spiritual leaders emerged. Soon, armies were needed to protect the stockpiled resources from others who might want to steal it. The emergence of elite classes and the rise of armies required records and bookkeeping, which furthered the spread of written symbols. As clergy, the ruling elite, and philosophers began to take up writing, the systems became more complex. The turn to writing didn’t threaten the influential place of oral communication, however. During the near 5,000-year period of the "Manuscript Era," literacy, or the ability to read and write, didn’t spread far beyond the most privileged in society. In fact, it wasn’t until the 1800s that widespread literacy existed in the world.

Print Era, Audiovisual Era and Internet Era

The end of the "Manuscript Era" marked a shift toward a rapid increase in communication technologies. The "Print Era" extended from 1450 to 1850 and was marked by the invention of the printing press and the ability to mass-produce written texts. This 400-year period gave way to the "Audiovisual Era," which only lasted 140 years, from 1850 to 1990, and was marked by the invention of radio, telegraph, telephone, and television. Our current period, the "Internet Era," has only lasted from 1990 until the present. This period has featured the most rapid dispersion of a new method of communication, as the spread of the Internet and the expansion of digital and personal media signaled the beginning of the digital age.

The evolution of communication media, from speaking to digital technology, has also influenced the field of communication studies. To better understand how this field of study developed, we must return to the "Manuscript Era," which saw the production of the earliest writings about communication. In fact, the oldest essay and book ever found were written about communication. Although this essay and book predate Aristotle, he is a logical person to start with when tracing the development of the communication scholarship. His writings on communication, although not the oldest, are the most complete and systematic. Ancient Greek philosophers and scholars such as Aristotle theorized about the art of rhetoric, which refers to speaking well and persuasively.

Today, we hear the word rhetoric used in negative ways. A politician, for example, may write off his or her opponent’s statements as "just rhetoric." This leads us to believe that rhetoric refers to misleading, false, or unethical communication, which is not at all in keeping with the usage of the word by ancient or contemporary communication experts. While rhetoric does refer primarily to persuasive communication messages, much of the writing and teaching about rhetoric conveys the importance of being an ethical rhetor, or communicator. So when a communicator, such as a politician, speaks in misleading, vague, or dishonest ways, he or she isn’t using rhetoric; he or she is being an unethical speaker.

The study of rhetoric focused on public communication, primarily oratory used in discussions or debates regarding laws and policy, speeches delivered in courts, and speeches intended to praise or blame another person. The connections among rhetoric, policy making, and legal proceedings show that communication and citizenship have been connected since the study of communication began.

Quick Recap

Introduction to Communication Studies: Diverse field with a practical focus, rooted in ancient Greek philosophy.
Definition of Communication: Involves the exchange of information as a learned skill, encompassing sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, and context.
Organizational Context: Highlights communication's purpose in organizations, illustrated through vertical and horizontal channels.
Definitions of Communication: Varied definitions emphasizing meaning generation, influenced by verbal and nonverbal symbols.
Schools of Communication: Process school emphasizes message transmission, while the semiotic school focuses on meaning exchange through texts.
Brief History of Communication: Traces evolution from primitive expressions to the Internet Era, categorizing historical periods.
Impact on Communication Studies: Connects development to ancient Greek philosophers, with Aristotle's influence on rhetoric.
Ethics in Communication: Examines rhetoric's ethical role in ancient times, stressing the importance of ethical communication.

Sources:

Marshall T. Poe, A History of Communications: Media and Society from the Evolution of Speech to the Internet (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011)

James C. McCroskey, "Communication Competence: The Elusive Construct," in Competence in Communication: A Multidisciplinary Approach, ed. Robert N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984).

ITP FAQs

2024-03-25T09:58:27.047000Z

Media in India

Media Companies: Media owning companies in India share in many cases some significant features. Whereas some present a fairly simple shareholding which shows clearly who pulls the strings, others have created complex structures of subsidiary companies. The web of companies, cross-owning one another, are set up to obscure the relationship between the owner and the media company. For instance, the Birla Family’s shares in the India Today Group required meticulous calculation involving going through the shareholding structures of more than two dozen companies, which stand out with their heavy crossholding among each other. A similar pattern can be detected in Essel Group and Zee Media Corporation, owned by Dr. Subhash Chandra whose shares are veiled behind several interconnected companies.

In addition, media companies in India are mostly private limited companies. With a few public companies that trade between 25 and 35 per cent of their shares in the Indian Stock Exchange, most of these are still largely controlled by the founding families.

Rajya Sabha TV is a cable television network channel owned and operated by Rajya Sabha that covers the proceedings of Rajya Sabha. Apart from telecasting live coverage of Rajya Sabha proceedings, RSTV also brings incisive analysis of parliamentary affairs.
Other FAQs: Prasar Bharati, Network 18, NDTV, The Times Group, The Hindu, Zee Media.
Go to the profile of Media Companies in India for detailed info.

Television stations in India: Television came to India in September 15, 1959 with an experimental transmission based in Delhi. In 1965 a daily one hour news service was started. The television services were extended to Mumbai in 1972. By the year 1975 services were extended to Kolkata, Chennai, Amritsar and Lucknow. The state public service broadcaster - Doordarshan was constituted as a separate department under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting by 1976 when the network starting expanding with eight stations covering a population of 45 million.

Television in India was all about Doordarshan till the late eighties of the last century. In fact, till 1982, television broadcast was in black and white. It was only in 1982, when India hosted the Asian Games in New Delhi, that the country transitioned to colour television broadcast. Doordarshan continued to be the sole television broadcaster for nearly a decade, till 1991. India had a taste of first "private" television channel in 1991 when Sun Network, based in Tamil Nadu of South India, and later Zee TV, based in North India launched. Today the country has nearly 900 television channels of which, more than 400 are news channels. MOM has investigated ownership structures of 23 leading television stations in India.

FAQs: NDTV 24x7, Asianet News, Mirror Now, Times Now, CNN News-18
Go to ownership structures of leading television stations in India.

Individual Media owners: Media ownership in India presents a pretty sight from the outside. Mostly consisting of individuals with a background in media, or companies that have media as a part of their diverse portfolio or businessmen with multiple interests. But scratch beneath the surface, and one can see politics lurking in the background. Some significant examples: Asianet News Malayalam and Suvarna News Kannada, are owned by Asianet News Network Limited, or ANN. But ANN is majorly owned by Jupiter Capital, a company owned by Rajeev Chandrasekhar, Member of Parliament from India’s ruling party, the Bharatiya Janata Party or BJP. The Darda brothers, former Ministers of the Indian National Congress government in Maharashtra, and in the previous Congress-led regime at the Centre, United Progressive Alliance (UPA) own Lokmat. The biggest media conglomerate in South India, the Sun Group is run by Kalanithi Maran, the grand nephew of the former Chief Minister of Tamilnadu, Muthuvel Karunanidhi of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. News Live, a prominent news television channel in the eastern part is run by Riniki Bhuyan Sarma, the wife of the minister in the BJP government in Assam, Himant Biswa Sarma. Sakal, a prominent Marathi newspaper is run by the family of Sharad Pawar, President of the Nationalist Congress Party. There are many examples like these in our study.

It's important to note that political affiliation does not always or necessarily translate into political bias, but the link between political affiliation and content bias requires a whole new study including content analysis which is beyond the scope of this project. However, for the purposes of this study, political proximity of media especially through direct ownership or financial dependence signifies presence of a risk to media pluralism. Go to the owner’s database.
List of news channels in India
List of all channels in India

Television Programmes

Great British Railway Journeys

Great British Railway Journeys is a BBC documentary series presented by Michael Portillo, a former Conservative MP and Cabinet Minister who was instrumental in saving the Settle to Carlisle line from closure in 1989. The programme was first broadcast in 2010 on BBC Two and has returned annually for a total of 11 series. The series features Portillo travelling around the railway networks of Great Britain, Ireland and the Isle of Man, referring to Bradshaw's Guide and comparing how the various destinations have changed since; initially, he used an 1840s copy, but in later series he used other editions. Portillo has also presented 7 other programmes with a similar format: Great Continental Railway Journeys, Great American Railroad Journeys, Great Indian Railway Journeys, Great Alaskan Railroad Journeys and Great Canadian Railway Journeys, Great Australian Railway Journeys and Great Asian Railway Journeys.
Last Week Tonight

Last Week Tonight with John Oliver is an American late-night talk and news satire television program hosted by comedian John Oliver. The half-hour-long show premiered in April 2014 on HBO. Last Week Tonight shares some similarities with Comedy Central's The Daily Show, as it takes a satirical look at news, politics and current events, but on a weekly basis.
Haritha Vidyalayam

A panel of experts analyse the achievements of various government and aided schools in Kerala under different parameters. The best institution is honoured with a cash prize and an award.

Stages of Scripting

2024-03-25T09:55:53.578000Z

Scriptwriting is a process. It begins with gathering information, thinking, analyzing, and questioning, and it ends with devising a creative concept. This visual idea then needs to be developed through some kind of outline or treatment and then be scripted in a format appropriate to the medium concerned. This script format lays out a set of descriptive instructions in a special language about what is to be seen on the screen and heard on the sound track.

Idea

The idea. We know what that is. It is the sharp concept, the most important reason, that underlines the whole film structure.

Treatment

The treatment, or outline. The treatment, or outline, is basically a brief sketch. It suggests an approach and tells the overall story of the ¤lm. Its typical aim is to clarify the purpose and progression of the ¤lm with the funding agency.

2 common purposes of Treatments

The word ‘Treatment’ is used interchangeably and doesn’t always mean the same thing. Some Treatments are designed to help sell an idea and are sometimes accompanied by a script, while others are part of the production process. The main difference between the two is size. Treatments for production purposes are much longer and include a detailed scene-by-scene breakdown; whereas Treatments designed to sell ideas can be little more than a one page summary.

There are no hard and fast rules as to what a Treatment for a television series should contain and its length depends on the complexity of the story being proposed and the production company it is being sent to. However, anyone reading it should come away with a clear understanding of the basic storyline, setting and the main characters involved.

To do this, a Treatment will normally contain a:

Title: A dynamic one. It seems obvious but a good title is often a sign of a solid central idea.
Logline: A powerful one or two-sentence statement of the idea being proposed (circa 25 words).
Synopsis: A three paragraph synopsis outlining the idea in more detail (circa 300 – 500 words).
Episodes: A three or four page episode storyline summary (circa 500 – 1200 words).
Characters: Short descriptive outlines for each of the main characters (circa100 words each).
Script(s): One or two episode scripts. However, submitting a script is not always necessary.

Screenplay/Visual Writing

Basically, visual writing in a screenplay is everything that’s a part of your script that’s not dialogue – in other words, visual descriptions.

This includes:

Scene action: What’s happening in the scene? Did a train just whiz by? Did a horse gallop past a window? What’s happening around your characters?
Character appearance: What does your character look like? Are they clean-cut? Sloppy? Bright-eyed? Tired? What are they wearing? A UPS uniform? A wedding dress? A sweater and slacks? The visual details you choose will tell us about your character as a person and what they’re experiencing in the moment.
Location appearance: What does the space in which your scene takes place look and feel like? Share details that are unique to that space. Don’t tell me a kitchen has a stove and refrigerator (most do!) – instead, tell me what makes that kitchen different from another kitchen. Is it small and cramped? Vast and sterile? Warm and cozy? Be specific.
Character action: What is your character doing? How do they act and react? Someone just said "I love you" to your character – did they look down and start to cry, jump for joy, run away? Their physical responses can communicate what they’re feeling – don’t ignore them.

Simply put, any description that’s intended to paint a picture in the mind of the viewer is considered visual writing.

Short, kinetic sentences foreground specific images: the metronome, Andrew’s blistering hands, the drumsticks. The scene is about "Andrew practicing like mad" until "CRAAACK", his right drumstick "SNAPS IN HALF." You can hear that sound, right? The capitalization helps us imagine it, as does the run-on structure of the preceding line – "struggling, sweating, hands blistering" – contrasting with that single, percussive syllable that stops us short: CRAAACK.

Thanks to Damien Chazelle’s specific imagery, we’re right there with Andrew. We feel his focus and obsessive energy right up to the accident, which releases tension, literally slowing us down with three sentences: "He stops. Spent. Looks at his hand, sweating and throbbing from the blisters." The structure and images work together to sweep us up in the scene action.

Shooting script

A shooting script is the version of a screenplay used during the production of a motion picture. Shooting scripts are distinct from spec scripts in that they make use of scene numbers (along with certain other formatting conventions described below), and they follow a well-defined set of procedures specifying how script revisions should be implemented and circulated. It is used during the production process of your movie to help communicate the filming process to all crew members and actors involved. The shooting script is more elaborate, precise, overwritten version of the screenplay. Unlike what common sense may suggest, the shooting script is not written by the screenwriter. It is written by the director alongside his cinematographer, while both discuss their ideas and shot plan desired for the movie.

In broad terms, the main difference between the screenplay and the shooting script is that the screenplay is a selling tool, whereas the shooting script is a production tool.

Storyboard

The storyboarding process, in the form it is known today, was developed at the Walt Disney studio during the early 1930s, after several years of similar processes being in use at Disney and other animation studios. Storyboarding became popular in live-action film production during the early 1940s.

Storyboards by David Lowery for Steven Spielberg's Jurassic Park

A storyboard is essentially a large comic of the film or some section of the film produced beforehand to help film directors, cinematographers and television commercial advertising clients visualize the scenes and find potential problems before they occur. Often storyboards include arrows or instructions that indicate movement.

In creating a motion picture with any degree of fidelity to a script, a storyboard provides a visual layout of events as they are to be seen through the camera lens. In the storyboarding process, most technical details involved in crafting a film can be efficiently described either in picture, or in additional text.

Some live-action directors, storyboard extensively before taking the pitch to their funders, stating that it helps them get the figure they are looking for since they can show exactly where the money will be used. Other directors storyboard only certain scenes, or not at all. Animation directors are usually required to storyboard extensively, sometimes in place of doing a script.

Storyboards were adapted from the film industry to business, purportedly by Howard Hughes of Hughes Aircraft. Today they are used by industry for planning ad campaigns, commercials, a proposal or other projects intended to convince or compel to action. A "quality storyboard" is a tool to help facilitate the introduction of a quality improvement process into an organization.

Use of storyboards in other fields

More recently the term "storyboard" has been used in the fields of web development, software development and instructional design to present and describe interactive events as well as motion on user interfaces, electronic pages and presentation screens. One advantage of using storyboards is that it allows in film and business the user to experiment with changes in the storyline to evoke stronger reaction or interest.

Flashbacks, for instance, are often the result of sorting storyboards out of chronological order to help build suspense and interest.

The process of visual thinking and planning allows a group of people to brainstorm together, placing their ideas on storyboards and then arranging the storyboards on the wall. This fosters more ideas and generates consensus inside the group.

A storyboard is an extremely valuable tool, if you have time to make one. If you don’t make a storyboard, at the very least you need to create a shot list — a version of the script that breaks down the story into a series of shots, and describes each in simple notation of scale and subject.

Shot list

The shot list included uses arrows down the right side to indicate non-consecutive shots that can and should be filmed in continuous takes — that is, the director plans to cutaway briefly to a reaction and then return to the same image, so there’s no reason to stop the camera. The parenthesis indicates the cutaways that are bracketed by the continuous shots.

The function of the shot list during the shoot is that it allows the filmmaker to quickly place the particular shot being recorded into the larger narrative context of the production.

Since it is extremely inefficient to shoot a story in the order the shots appear in the final production — if a dialogue scene cuts back and forth between two people, you’d have to keep resetting the tripod and lighting over and over, repeating all your tech labor after each little snippet — films are always shot out of sequence, organized in a way to get as many of the same kind of shots in a single setup as possible. Do all the shots from one side of scene at once; do all the shots in the same location at once, no matter if some come at the very beginning of the story and some at the very end. This requires pre-planning: the goal being to arrange the shoot so that it requires the least amount of repetitive labor — a big makeup change is more complicated than a camera set-up, so that would take priority, and so on.

The plan for exactly what gets shot in what order is called the shooting schedule. As you go through the shooting schedule, check off each shot as you complete a satisfactory take — then check it off on the shot list too. Just having a shooting schedule is not enough, because you quickly lose the sense of what’s really supposed to be happening in the shot when you look at all the notations out of sequence.

The shot list and shooting schedule examples here contain the minimal amount of

information you’d want such documents to contain. On the one hand, you want to

keep them compact, using as few sheets of paper as possible, so you can keep the paperwork organized amidst any chaos on the set. On the other hand, more detailed notes can help you avoid potential problems more readily.

One thing that is recommended, is adding to the info shown in these examples, a note about continuity — how you get will need to get into or out of a shot in editing. Indicate where you may have a Match-On-Action planned by noting ‘MOA’; make notes on where the screen direction of eye lines, exits/entrances should be at the beginning and end of shots. All of these things are very easy to forget if they’re not written down.

Shooting schedule/shooting order

This requires pre-planning: the goal being to arrange the shoot so that it requires the least amount of repetitive labor — a big makeup change is more complicated than a camera set-up, so that would take priority, and so on.

On the one hand, you want to keep them compact, using as few sheets of paper as possible, so you can keep the paperwork organized amidst any chaos on the set. On the other hand, more detailed notes can help you avoid potential problems more readily.

Script Format - Sample Templates

Multimedia: Definition, Characteristics & Applications

2024-03-25T09:57:06.315000Z

Multimedia has become an inevitable part of any presentation. It has found a variety of applications right from entertainment to education. The evolution of internet has also increased the demand for multimedia content.

Topics covered:

Definition of Multimedia
Elements of multimedia
Types of multimedia

Linear and non-linear

Features of multimedia
Applications of multimedia
Multimedia system architecture

Speaking directly with a person one on one is immediate and does not require mediation. This is communication in its purest form. The purpose of a medium is to assist in the conveying of a message. When using more than one type of medium, we refer to it as multimedia, whether or not it is computer-based. At one time, media mainly applied to newspapers as a way to disseminate news and information to the masses. Now, media encompasses many forms of communication.

The simplest explanation of multimedia is "the combination of two or more media." However, multimedia is vastly more complex than the term implies. It intertwines a myriad of media elements and, as a result, makes for a more comprehensive end product than when media components are experienced independently. Multimedia means that computer information can be represented through audio, video, and animation in addition to traditional media (i.e., text, graphics/drawings, images). Multimedia also refers to the use of electronic media to store and experience multimedia content. Multimedia is similar to traditional mixed media in fine art, but with a broader scope. The term "rich media" is synonymous for interactive multimedia.

The media in multimedia comes in different forms: graphics, photography, text, audio (sound effects, music, voice-over, and so on), video, and animation.

Individually, each one serves as a powerful communication vehicle for both expressive and practical purposes. Melded together, they allow for a more dynamic and engaging experience. The final result is improved on even further when there is cooperation and coordination between the disparate media components.

Marshall McLuhan was a leading and influential media communication theorist who coined the familiar phrase "The medium is the message". The subject matter is by no means irrelevant, but the delivery format is a crucial factor in how the message comes across. This is where the immense power and influence of multimedia lie.

Multimedia is a synergistic process whereby various media elements work together to make a stronger, more cohesive whole. Take it one step further—get a person involved by providing interactivity with a multimedia program, and there will be even greater potential to increase the educational and entertainment value. Adding user choices with the help of computer code leads to the interactive in interactive multimedia and generates an engaging, multifaceted experience.

Linear and non-linear multimedia

Multimedia may be broadly divided into linear and non-linear categories. Linear active content progresses without any navigation control for the viewer such as a cinema presentation. Non-linear content offers user interactivity to control progress as used with a computer game or used in self-paced computer based training. Non-linear content is also known as hypermedia content.

Linear multimedia

Users have little control over the presentation, just sit back and watches the presentation
The presentation normally plays from the start to end or even loops continually to present the information.
A movie is a common type of linear multimedia

Interactive/non-linear multimedia

Users dictate the flow of delivery, to control the what and when.
Users have the ability to move around or follow different path through the information presentation.

Advantage: complex domain of information can be presented.

Disadvantage: users might lost in the massive "information highway".

Useful for: information archive (encyclopedia), education, training and entertainment.

Multimedia presentations can be live or recorded. A recorded presentation may allow interactivity via a navigation system. A live multimedia presentation may allow interactivity via interaction with the presenter or performer.

Features

Multimedia presentations may be viewed in person on stage, projected, transmitted, or played locally with a media player.
A broadcast may be a live or recorded multimedia presentation. Broadcasts and recordings can be either analog or digital electronic media technology.
Digital online multimedia may be downloaded or streamed. Streaming multimedia may be live or on-demand.
Multimedia games and simulations may be used in a physical environment with special effects, with multiple users in an online network, or locally with an offline computer, game system, or simulator.
Enhanced levels of interactivity are made possible by combining multiple forms of media content. But depending on what multimedia content you have it may vary. Online multimedia is increasingly becoming object-oriented and data-driven, enabling applications with collaborative end-user innovation and personalization on multiple forms of content over time.
Examples of these range from multiple forms of content on web sites like photo galleries with both images (pictures) and title (text) user-updated, to simulations whose co-efficient, events, illustrations, animations or videos are modifiable, allowing the multimedia "experience" to be altered without reprogramming.

Applications

Multimedia finds its application in various areas including, but not limited to, advertisements, art, education, entertainment, engineering, medicine, mathematics, business, scientific research and spatial, temporal applications.

Creative industries - Creative industries use multimedia for a variety of purposes ranging from fine arts, to entertainment, to commercial art, to journalism, to media and software services provided for any of the industries listed below. An individual multimedia designer may cover the spectrum throughout their career. Request for their skills range from technical, to analytical and to creative.
Commercial - Much of the electronic old and new media utilized by commercial artists is multimedia. Exciting presentations are used to grab and keep attention in advertising. Industrial, business to business, and interoffice communications are often developed by creative services firms for advanced multimedia presentations beyond simple slide shows to sell ideas or liven-up training. Commercial multimedia developers may be hired to design for governmental services and nonprofit services applications as well.
Entertainment and Fine Arts - In addition, multimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry, especially to develop special effects in movies and animations. Multimedia games are a popular pastime and are software programs available either as CD-ROMs or online. Some video games also use multimedia features. Multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just sitting by as passive recipients of information are called Interactive Multimedia.
Education - In Education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses (popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopaediaand almanacs. A CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations, text about a particular topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats. Edutainment is an informal term used to describe combining education with entertainment, especially multimedia entertainment.

BYJU'S – The Learning App is the common brand name for Think and Learn Private Ltd., a Bangalore-based educational technology (EdTech) and online tutoring firm founded in 2011 by Byju Raveendranat Bangalore (India). In March 2019, it became the world's most valued edtech company at $5.4 billion (Rs 37,000 crore).

Engineering - Software engineers may use multimedia in Computer Simulations for anything from entertainment to training such as military or industrial training. Multimedia for software interfaces are often done as collaboration between creative professionals and software engineers.
Industry - In the Industrial sector, multimedia is used as a way to help present information to shareholders, superiors and coworkers. Multimedia is also helpful for providing employee training, advertising and selling products all over the world via virtually unlimited web-based technologies.
Mathematical and Scientific Research - In Mathematical and Scientific Research, multimedia is mainly used for modeling and simulation. For example, a scientist can look at a molecular model of a particular substance and manipulate it to arrive at a new substance. Representative research can be found in journals such as the Journal of Multimedia.
Medicine - In Medicine, doctors can get trained by looking at a virtual surgery or they can simulate how the human body is affected by diseases spread by viruses and bacteria and then develop techniques to prevent it.
Multimedia in Public Places - In hotels, railway stations, shopping malls, museums, and grocery stores, multimedia will become available at stand-alone terminals or kiosks to provide information and help. Such installation reduce demand on traditional information booths and personnel, add value, and they can work around the clock, even in the middle of the night, when live help is off duty.

A menu screen from a supermarket kiosk that provide services ranging from meal planning to coupons. Hotel kiosk list nearby restaurant, maps of the city, airline schedules, and provide guest services such as automated checkout. Printers are often attached, so users can walk away with a printed copy of the information. Museum kiosk are not only used to guide patrons through the exhibits, but when installed at each exhibit, provide great added depth, allowing visitors to browser though richly detailed information specific to that display.

Hypermedia is an extension to what is known as hypertext, or the ability to open new Web pages by clicking text links on a Web browser. Hypermedia extends upon this by allowing the user to click images, movies, graphics and other media apart from text6 to create a nonlinear network of information. The term was coined by Fred Nelson in 1965.

Multimedia System Architecture

Multimedia applications can be categorised as live or orchestrated.

Live applications are those which involve interaction among the users of the application, such as video conferencing, and the data generated and reproduced on the fly.
Orchestrated applications are those that reproduce multimedia data that was previously generated and stored in some medium where the user can control and playback according to their requirements.

Examples include Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) packages, pay-per-view movies, and business presentations. In order to satisfy the requirements of these different categories of applications, a range of multimedia system architectures would be required, with different emphasis on the capabilities of individual components.

Multimedia systems can either be stand alone or networked. The architecture of a stand alone vs. a networked multimedia system are similar, the only difference being the presence of a storage subsystem vs. a network subsytem at the lowest level. A networked multimedia server would incorporate both subsystems. The storage subsystem consists of databases to organize and keep track of the various multimedia objects that make up a given presentation, and storage devices that the databases and media contents reside in.

Applications: Multimedia-related product/apps

GUI: Allows user to interact with the device through graphical icons instead of text

OS: Software which controls the overall function of the system

System hardware: External connected components, e.g., mouse, keyboard

Software drivers: Software which helps the system hardware work properly

Add-on MM devices: External devices which are connected, e.g., scanners, camera, speakers, microphone

MM Driver Support: Software which helps the add-on devices to work properly

Multimedia extensions: Deals with the processor and storage capacity, since multimedia requires high processing power.

Multimedia Production and Authoring Tools

2024-03-25T09:57:20.936000Z

Multimedia authoring is a process of assembling different types of media contents like text, audio, image, animations and video as a single stream of information with the help of various software tools available in the market.

Topics covered in this article:

Multimedia authoring tools

Features of authoring softwares

Types of authoring tools

Card- and page-based
Icon-based
Time-based

Navigation structures

Linear
Hierarchical
Non-linear
Composite

Compositing

Matting

Multimedia Authoring Tools

Multimedia authoring tools give an integrated environment for joining together the different elements of a multimedia production.
It gives the framework for organizing and editing the components of a multimedia project.
It enables the developer to create interactive presentation by combining text, audio, video, graphics and animation.

Multimedia authoring softwares have the following features:

Editing Features

Most authoring environment and packages exhibit capabilities to create, edit and transform different kinds of media that they support.

For example, Macromedia Flash comes bundled with its own sound editor. This eliminates the need for buying dedicated software to edit sound data. So authoring systems include editing tools to create, edit and convert multimedia components such as animation and video clips.

Organizing Features

The process of organization, design and production of multimedia involve navigation diagrams or storyboarding and flowcharting.

Some of the authoring tools provide a system of visual flowcharting or overview facility to showcase your project's structure at a macro level. Navigation diagrams help to organize a project. Many web-authoring programs like Dreamweaver include tools that create helpful diagrams and links among the pages of a website.

Programming features

Visual programming with icons or objects - It is the simplest and easiest authoring process. For example, if you want to play a sound then just click on its icon.
Programming with a scripting language - Authoring software offers the ability to write scripts for software to build features that are not supported by the software itself. With script you can perform computational tasks - sense user input and respond, character creation, animation, launching other application and to control external multimedia devices.

Document Development tools- Some authoring tools offers direct importing of pre-formatted text, to index facilities, to use complex text search mechanism and to use hypertext linking tools.

Interactivity Features- Interactivity empowers the end users to control the content and flow of information of the project. Authoring tools may provide one or more levels of interactivity.

Simple branching - Offers the ability to go to another section of the multimedia production.
Conditional branching - Supports a go to base on the result of IF-THEN decision or events.

Playback Features

When you are developing multimedia project, you will continuously assembling elements and testing to see how the assembly looks and performs. Therefore authoring system should have playback facility.

Supporting CD-ROM or Laser Disc Sources- This software allows over all control of CD-drives and Laser disc to integrate audio, video and computer files. CD-ROM drives, video and laserdisc sources are directly controlled by authoring programs.
Supporting Video for Windows- Videos are the right media for your project which are stored on the hard disk. Authoring software has the ability to support more multimedia elements like video for windows.

Hypertext- Hypertext capabilities can be used to link graphics, some animation and other text. The help system of window is an example of hypertext. Such systems are very useful when a large amount of textual information is to be represented or referenced.

Cross-Platform Capability- Some authoring programs are available on several platforms and provide tools for transforming and converting files and programs from one to the other.

Run-time Player for Distribution - Run time software is often included in authoring software to explain the distribution of your final product by packaging playback software with content. Some advanced authoring programs provide special packaging and run-time distribution for use with devices such as CD-ROM.

Internet Playability - Due to Web has become a significant delivery medium for multimedia, authoring systems typically provide a means to convert their output so that it can be delivered within the context of HTML or DHTML.

Types of authoring tools

Card- and page-based tools.
Icon-based, event-driven tools.
Time-based tools.

Card- and page-based tools.

In these authoring systems, elements are organized as pages of a book or a stack of cards. In the book or stack there are thousand of pages or cards available. These tools are best used when the bulk of your content consists of elements that can be viewed individually, for example the pages of a book or file cards in card file. You can jump from page to page because all pages can be interrelated. In the authoring system you can organize pages or cards in the sequences manner. Every page of the book may contain many media elements like sounds, videos and animations.
Card‐ and page‐based authoring systems provide a simple and easily understood metaphor for organizing multimedia elements.
It contains media objects such as buttons, text fields, and graphic objects.
It provides a facility for linking objects to pages or cards.
One page may have a hyperlink to another page that comes at a much later stage and by clicking on the same you might have effectively skipped several pages in between. Some examples of card or page tools are: Hypercard(Mac), Tool book (Windows), PowerPoint (Windows), Supercard(Mac)

Icon-based or Event-driven authoring tools

Icon-based tools give a visual programming approach to organizing and presenting multimedia. First you build a structure or flowchart of events, tasks and decisions by dragging appropriate icons from a library.

Each icon does a specific task, for example- plays a sound, open an image etc. The flowchart graphically displays the project's logic.

When the structure is built you can add your content text, graphics, animation, video movies and sounds. A nontechnical multimedia author can also build sophisticated applications without scripting using icon based authoring tools.

Some examples of icon based tools are: Authorware Professional (Mac/Windows), Icon Author (Windows)

Time based authoring tools

Time based authoring tools allow the designer to arrange various elements and events of the multimedia project along a well defined time line. By time line, we simply mean the passage of time. As the time advances from starting point of the project, the events begin to occur, one after another. The events may include media files playback as well as transition from one portion of the project to another. The speed at which these transitions occur can also be accurately controlled. These tools are best to use for those projects, wherein the information flow can be directed from beginning to end much like the movies.

Some example of Time based tools are: Macromedia's Director, Macromedia Flash

Object oriented authoring tools support environment based on object.

Each object has the following two characteristics:

State or Attributes - The state or attributes refers to the built in characteristics of an object. For example, a color T.V has the following attributes:

Color receiver
Volume control
Picture control
128 channels
Remote control unit

Behavior or Operations - The behavior or operations of an object refers to its action. For example, a T.V can behave in any of the following manner at a given point of time:

Switched on
Switched off
Displays picture and sound from
A TV cable connection
A TV transmitter
A DVD
A VCR

In these systems, multimedia elements events are often treated as objects that live in a hierarchical order of parent and child relationships. These objects use messages passed among them to do things according to the properties assigned to them. For example, a video object will likely have a duration property i.e how long the video plays and a source property that is the location of the video file. This video object will likely accept commands from the system such as play and stop. Some examples of the object oriented tools are: mTropolis (Mac/Windows), Apple Media Tool (Mac/Windows), Media Forge (Windows)

Navigation structures

Linear:Users navigate sequentially, from one frame of information to another

Hierarchical:Users navigate along the branches of a tree structure that is shaped by the natural logic of the content

Nonlinear: Users navigate freely through the content of the project, unbound by predetmined routes

Composite: Users may navigate freely, but are occasionally constrained to linear presentations of movies or date.

Designing the structure

Consideration on Hot Spot, button and icon

Hot spot: Areas of the screen that are ‘clickable’.
Button: Provide button feedback whenever possible

Have a unique ‘pressed’ or ‘clicked’state
In HTML, feedback is provided by colour changing
Icon: Avoid forcing users to learn special icons in your project. Try to follow the design convention set by other leading software.

Designing the Appearance

Usually called the user interface design or the look and feel design.
The target is to facilitate communication, provide entertainment, elicit emotion, etc
The graphic design of your multimedia product is the users first impression. A well design interfaces provide a good match between the user’s task needs, skill level and learning ability and will lead to satisfied and productive users.

Compositing

Compositing is the process through which two or more images combine to make the appearance of a single picture. Typically, paste a foreground object onto a new background. The composite process can be done on-set and in-camera or during Post-Production. There are dozens of different ways to composite shots but perhaps the most common example is when a weatherman is placed in front of a greenscreen with the weather details behind them.

It is widely used for,

Movie special effect
Combining graphics & film
Photo retouching

Change background
Fake depth of field
Page layout: extract objects, magazine covers

Compositing techniques

Composting techniques known as chroma keying that remove all areas of a certain color from a recording - colloquially known as "bluescreen" or "greenscreen" (because those are the most popular colors used) are probably the best-known and most widely used modern techniques for creating traveling mattes.
Computer-generated imagery, either static or animated, is also often rendered with a transparent background and digitally overlaid on top of modern film recordings using the same principle as a matte - a digital image mask.
Matting

Mattes are used to combine a foreground image (e.g. actors on a set or a spaceship) with a background image (e.g. a scenic vista or a starfield with planets). In this case, the matte is the background painting. In film and stage, mattes can be physically huge sections of painted canvas, portraying large scenic expanses of landscapes.

In film, the principle of a matte requires masking certain areas of the film emulsion to selectively control which areas are exposed. However, many complex special-effects scenes have included dozens of discrete image elements, requiring very complex use of mattes, and layering mattes on top of one another. For an example of a simple matte, we may wish to depict a group of actors in front of a store, with a massive city and sky visible above the store's roof. We would have two images—the actors on the set, and the image of the city—to combine onto a third. This would require two masks/mattes. One would mask everything above the store's roof, and the other would mask everything below it. By using these masks/mattes when copying these images onto the third, we can combine the images without creating ghostly double-exposures. In film, this is an example of a static matte, where the shape of the mask does not change from frame to frame. Other shots may require mattes that change, to mask the shapes of moving objects, such as human beings or spaceships. These are known as traveling mattes. Traveling mattes enable greater freedom of composition and movement, but they are also more difficult to accomplish.

Images and Graphics in Multimedia

2024-03-14T06:26:05.919000Z

Painting and Drawing Tools

Painting and drawing tools, as well as 3-D modelers, are perhaps the most important items in the toolkit because, of all the multimedia elements, the graphical impact of the project will likely have the greatest influence on the end user. If the artwork is amateurish, or flat and uninteresting, both the creator and the users will be disappointed.

Painting software, such as Photoshop, Fireworks, and Painter, is dedicated to producing crafted bitmap images. Drawing softwares, such as CorelDraw, FreeHand, Illustrator, Designer, and Canvas, is dedicated to producing vector-based line art easily printed to paper at high resolution.

Some software applications combine drawing and painting capabilities, but many authoring systems can import only bitmapped images. Typically, bitmapped images provide the greatest choice and power to the artist for rendering fine detail and effects, and today bitmaps are used in multimedia more often than drawn objects.

Vector-drawn objects are described and drawn to the computer screen using a fraction of the memory space required to describe and store the same object in bitmap form. A vector is a line that is described by the location of its two endpoints.

Some vector- based packages such as Macromedia’s Flash are aimed at reducing file download times on the Web, and may contain both bitmaps and drawn art. The anti-aliased character shown in the bitmap of Color Plate 5 is an example of the fine touches that improve the look of an image.

Look for these features in a drawing or painting packages:

An intuitive graphical user interface with pull-down menus, status bars, palette control, and dialog boxes for quick, logical selection
Scalable dimensions, so you can resize, stretch, and distort both large and small bitmaps
Paint tools to create geometric shapes, from squares to circles and from curves to complex polygons
Ability to pour a color, pattern, or gradient into any area
Ability to paint with patterns and clip art
Customizable pen and brush shapes and sizes
Eyedropper tool that samples colors
Auto trace tool that turns bitmap shapes into vector-based outlines
Support for scalable text fonts and drop shadows
Multiple undo capabilities, to let you try again
Painting features such as smoothing coarse-edged objects into the background with anti-aliasing, airbrushing in variable sizes, shapes, densities, and patterns; washing colors in gradients; blending; and masking
Support for third-party special effect plug-ins
Object and layering capabilities that allow you to treat separate elements independently
Zooming, for magnified pixel editing
All common color depths: 1-, 4-, 8-, and 16-, 134-, or 313- bit color, and grayscale
Good color management and dithering capability among color depths using various color models such as RGB, HSB, and CMYK
Good palette management when in 8-bit mode
Good file importing and exporting capability for image formats such as PIC, GIF, TGA, TIF, WMF, JPG, PCX, EPS, PTN, and BMP

Image Editing Tools

Image-editing application is specialized and powerful tools for enhancing and retouching existing bitmapped images. These applications also provide many of the feature and tools of painting and drawing programs and can be used to create images from scratch as well as images digitized from scanners, video frame-grabbers, digital cameras, clip art files, or original artwork files created with a painting or drawing package.

Here are some features typical of image-editing applications and of interest to multimedia developers:

Multiple windows that provide views of more than one image at a time
Conversion of major image-data types and industry-standard file formats
Direct inputs of images from scanner and video sources
Employment of a virtual memory scheme that uses hard disk space as RAM for images that require large amounts of memory
Capable selection tools, such as rectangles, lassos, and magic wands, to select portions of a bitmap
Image and balance controls for brightness, contrast, and color balance
Good masking features
Multiple undo and restore features
Anti-aliasing capability, and sharpening and smoothing controls
Color-mapping controls for precise adjustment of color balance
Tools for retouching, blurring, sharpening, lightening, darkening, smudging, and tinting
Geometric transformation such as flip, skew, rotate, and distort, and perspective changes
Ability to resample and resize an image
Ability to create images from scratch, using line, rectangle, square, circle, ellipse, polygon, airbrush, paintbrush, pencil, and eraser tools, with customizable brush shapes and user-definable bucket and gradient fills
Multiple typefaces, styles, and sizes, and type manipulation and masking routines
Filters for special effects, such as crystallize, dry brush, emboss, facet, fresco, graphic pen, mosaic, pixelize, poster, ripple, smooth, splatter, stucco, twirl, watercolor, wave, and wind.

Image Manipulation

Manual Photo Manipulation

In the days of yore, before the advent of Photoshop, photographers painstakingly performed alterations manually using the following methods:

Airbrushing: An airbrush is a small, air-operated painting tool that sprays dyes and inks. In the pre-digital era, freehand airbrushing has been employed to alter photographs by concealing the signs that a photo has been "doctored" or retouched. During the dictatorship of Joseph Stalin, "undesirable" officials have been removed from photographs during the Great Purge using airbrushes.
Darkroom manipulation: Another non-digital method of altering photographs, darkroom manipulation involves dodging, burning, and masking – techniques that are said to be similar to digital manipulations with the exception that everything is done by hand.
Double exposure: A skilled photographer employs double exposure for artistic effect but it can occur accidentally, producing a blurry picture. Some non-digital cameras offer a "double exposure" option, but for those whose cameras don’t have this feature, they can simply use a filter, which can be used to cover part of the lens for the first shot, followed by covering another part of the lens for the second snapshot.
Negative scratching: This old school photo manipulation technique employs techniques such as soft focus, exotic printing processes, special filters and lens coating, and darkroom manipulation to convey "personal artistic expression."

Contemporary Photo Manipulation: Digital Techniques

Photo manipulation doesn’t just cover the techniques employed within a darkroom. It also refers to image editing done on a computer, more commonly known as photoshopping or photoshop. As you probably know, the term comes from the popular image editor created by Adobe Systems but there are other similar programs such as Corel Paint Shop Pro Photo, Microsoft Paint, Ulead PhotoImpact, and Macromedia Freehand.

These tools are often utilized by photographers and by graphic designers. With digital editing, you can apply different textures to uneven surfaces, remove color casts, transform regular pictures to cool 3D photos, and lots more. Below are some digital photo manipulation techniques that you can try to makeover a simple image from plain to amazing.

Doctoring: Nowadays, ad agencies and magazine editors authorize the use of photo manipulation software to hide a subject’s imperfections — or in some cases, highlight the subject’s flaws. Doctoring is quite useful for the before and after photos of weight loss ads but remains a controversial and often frowned-upon practice.
Age progression: To "age-progress" a person’s face means to make the subject look older than he or she actually is in a photograph. Age progression is used by law enforcement agencies to identify subjects and is now used for photo manipulation purposes. You can age-progress a subject using Photoshop.
Fading smoke effect: Smoke has been used to create abstract photography. Nowadays, Photoshop and Illustrator are used to create stunning fading smoke effects.
Colour combustion: Colour combustion is a photo manipulation technique that incorporates several simple photo manipulation techniques, combining a number of different images to produce a new and digitally-enhanced image. After providing a concept, you can begin collecting stock images for your digital collage. Add, adjust, alter, cut, draw, paint, and modify as you see fit. The image and colours are only limited by your imagination.
Photo cutouts: In some cases, you only want the subject and not his or her background. A photo cutout sounds like a simple solution but there are actually a number of different ways to do it. You can use the magnetic lasso or the good old magic wand tool for simple photo cutouts. However, no one tool fits all situations. You’ll need to combine several techniques before you can produce a seamless photo cutout.

Using charts and diagrams

Visual representations help us to understand data quickly. When you show an effective graph or chart, your report or presentation gains clarity and authority, whether you're comparing sales figures or highlighting a trend. The main functions of a chart are to display data and invite further exploration of a topic. Charts are used in situations where a simple table won't adequately demonstrate important relationships or patterns between data points.

Many word processing softwares (MS Word, Apple Pages, Libre Office), spreadsheet softwares (MS Excel, Numbers) as well as a myriad of online services (Google Docs, Google Sheets, Adobe Spark, Canva, Lucidchart, Venngage) allow you to create charts and diagrams.

Line Graphs: One of the graphs you will likely use most often is a line graph. Line graphs simply use a line to connect the data points that you plot. They are most useful for showing trends and for identifying whether two variables relate to (or "correlate with") one another. Examples of trend data include how sales figures vary from month to month, and how engine performance changes as the engine temperature rises.
Bar Graphs: Another type of graph that shows relationships between different data sets is the bar graph. In a bar graph, the height of the bar represents the measured value: the higher or longer the bar, the greater the value.
Pie Charts: A pie chart compares parts to a whole. As such, it shows a percentage distribution. The pie represents the total data set, and each segment of the pie is a particular category within the whole. To use a pie chart, the data you are measuring must depict a ratio or percentage relationship. Each segment must be calculated using the same unit of measurement, or the numbers will be meaningless.
Venn Diagrams: Venn diagrams show the overlaps between sets of data. Each set is represented by a circle. The degree of overlap between the sets is depicted by the amount of overlap between the circles. A Venn diagram is a good choice when you want to convey either the common factors or the differences between distinct groups.

OCR Software

Often there will be multimedia content and other text to incorporate into a multimedia project, but no electronic text file. With optical character recognition (OCR) software, a flat-bed scanner, and a computer, it is possible to save many hours of rekeying printed words, and get the job done faster and more accurately than a roomful of typists.

OCR software turns bitmapped characters into electronically recognizable ASCII text. A scanner is typically used to create the bitmap. Then the software breaks the bitmap into chunks according to whether it contains text or graphics, by examining the texture and density of areas of the bitmap and by detecting edges. The text areas of the image are then converted to ASCII character using probability and expert system algorithms.

Text Editing and Word Processing Tools

A word processor is usually the first software tool computer users rely upon for creating text. The word processor is often bundled with an office suite.

Word processors such as Microsoft Word and WordPerfect are powerful applications that include spellcheckers, table formatters, thesauruses and prebuilt templates for letters, resumes, purchase orders and other common documents.

Animation Tools

Animation and digital movies are sequences of bitmapped graphic scenes (frames, rapidly played back. Most authoring tools adapt either a frame or object oriented approach to animation. For creating animations Macromedia Flash or Adobe Flash are the industry standard. A file created in Flash is called a movie. A movie in Flash occupies very less file size, and hence is more popular for the Web. You can also create presentations and 2D Animations using Flash.

Stop motion is an animated filmmaking technique in which objects are physically manipulated in small increments between individually photographed frames so that they will appear to exhibit independent motion or change when the series of frames is played back.

Video Formats

A video format describes how one device sends video pictures to another device, such as the way that a DVD player sends pictures to a television or a computer to a monitor. More formally, the video format describes the sequence and structure of frames that create the moving video image.

Video formats are commonly known in the domain of commercial broadcast and consumer devices; most notably to date, these are the analog video formats of NTSC, PAL, and SECAM. However, video formats also describe the digital equivalents of the commercial formats.

QuickTime

QuickTime is a multimedia framework developed by Apple Inc. capable of handling various formats of digital video, media clips, sound, text, animation, music, and several types of interactive panoramic images.

Multimedia framework

A multimedia framework is a software framework that handles media on a computer and through a network. A good multimedia framework offers an intuitive API and a modular architecture to easily add support for new audio, video and container formats and transmission protocols.

A framework supports certain file types and codecs natively.

API

An application programming interface is an interface or communication protocol between different parts of a computer program intended to simplify the implementation and maintenance of software. An API may be for a web-based system, operating system, database system, computer hardware, or software library.

Encoding and transcoding video and audio from one format to another.
Decoding video and audio, and then sending the decoded stream to the graphics or audio subsystem for playback. In Mac OS X, QuickTime sends video playback to the Quartz Extreme (OpenGL) Compositor.
A plug-in architecture for supporting additional codecs (such as DivX).

Video Compression

Compression basically means reducing image data. A digitized analog video sequence can comprise of up to 165 Mbps of data. To reduce the media overheads for distributing these sequences, the following techniques are commonly employed to achieve desirable reductions in image data:

> Reduce color nuances within the image

> Reduce the color resolution with respect to the prevailing light intensity

> Remove small, invisible parts, of the picture

> Compare adjacent images and remove details that are unchnagedbetween two images

The first three are image based compression techniques, where only one frame is evaluated and compressed at a time. The last one is or video compression technique where different adjacent frames are compared as a way to further reduced the image data. All of these techniques are based on an accurate understanding of how the human brain and eyes work together to form a complex visual system.

As a result of these subtle reductions, a significant reduction in the resultant file size for the image sequences is achievable with little or no adverse effect in their visual quality. The extent, to which these image modifications are humanly visible, is typically dependent upon the degree to which the chosen compression technique is used. Often 50% to 90% compression can be achieved with no visible difference, and in some scenarios even beyond 95%.

Codec vs. Format

A codec is a compression standard. Raw video or audio is compressed when encoding, and decompressed (decoded) on playback. MP3 is an audio codec – a compression standard that MP3 players know how to decode, and MP3 encoders know how to encode. There are hundreds of codecs out there; some of the more important ones are H.264, HEVC, MPEG-2, Theora, VP8, VP9, JPEG2000, DivX, XviD, and the WMV family (video) and MP3, AAC, Vorbis, and the WMA family (audio).

A format is a file container that holds one or more codecs – video, audio, or even data. The container format contains information about the video, audio, and data tracks that it holds. Some example container formats are mov (Quicktime), mp4, ogg, and avi.

Lossless compression

There are two basic categories of compression; lossless and lossy. Lossless compression is a class of algorithms that will allow for the exact original data to be reconstructed from the compressed data. That means that a limited amount of techniques are made available for the data reduction, and the result is limited reduction of data. GIF is an example of lossless images compression, but is because of its limited abilities not relevant in video surveillance.

Lossy compression

Lossy compression on the contrary means that through the compression data is reduced to an extent where the original information can not be obtained when the video is decompressed. The difference is called the artifacts.

Codec

Lossless codecs. These codecs (H.264, Lagarith, Huffyuv) reproduce a video as-is, without any quality loss. Videos encoded with lossless codec usually have great quality but take a lot of hard drive space.

Lossy codecs. Although lossycodecs (Xvid, DivX, VP3, MPEG4) lose some amount of video information, videos with such codecs occupy less space than lossless ones. Lossycodecs can be transformative, predictive, or a combination of both types. The 1st type cuts up the original file and quantizes it into a more efficient space. The 2nd ones get rid of all unnecessary data and also save space.

Multimedia Production: Process

2024-03-25T09:57:52.767000Z

A multimedia development team consists of many different skill oriented people, who include a producer, educational consultant, media consultant, media designers, media specialists, Webmaster etc. However, the whole team works for a single objective that is creation of an effective multimedia application. Therefore, one of the major issues for Multimedia production is to plan an application. A multimedia project should be planned through following stepwise process:

Note: If you find this page too long and winding to comprehend, try this: Multimedia Production Process on Workflowy

Analysis

Defining the Goal: The Goal of a multimedia application is defined by the scope of work, which is a written description of the proposed multimedia project. The scope of work clarifies your ideas and goals regarding the proposed project. It also helps the development team members to visualize the basic objectives of the programme.

Outlining: Once the goal and the objectives of the programme are clear, the next step is to create Outline of the project. An interactive multimedia presentation may not necessary be Linear presentation like a slide show or a video programme. It has the capacity of Branching. The outline of a programme represents branching in a Multimedia Programme. The content specialist does the outlining. Developing an outline for an interactive multimedia project is almost the same as that of developing an outline for a chapter of the book. However, the outlining of Multimedia structure is translated into branches or points of decision on the screen. Even the main outlining headings may become options available to the user in the main menu of the Multimedia presentation program with sub-heading becoming the Sub-Menu entries.

Design

Designers work closely with producers or clients throughout the process.The conceptual model between the designers and the producers/clients must be closely matched. The more works put in design help to eliminate tedious and costly alteration at the end of the project.

Design Aspects

Interactivity – how does the process work? Allow users to control the application in a way that works with the content.

Implemented in different ways depending on the product, content and development tools
Three approaches: Linear, Programmed branching, Hypermedia

Structure – the flow (navigation) and content structure of the multimedia application

Logic flow chart: The logic flow chart is an important component of an Interactive Multimedia Programme. A logic flow chart is a graphical road map of the proposed application. The Authoring team takes the help of this flowchart to produce the final multimedia Application. The complexity of these flow charts is dependent on the applications being Developed. The flowcharts, which illustrate games, are among the most complex flowcharts.
Navigation: The term navigation means finding your way to certain information. Map the structures and navigation paths as early as possible. Common Navigation structures: Linear, Hierarchical, Nonlinear and Composite [More in this article]

Consideration on Hot Spot, button and icon

Hot spot: Areas of the screen that are ‘clickable’.
Button: Provide button feedback whenever possible. Have a unique ‘pressed’ or ‘clicked’ state. In HTML, feedback is provided by colour changing
Icon: Avoid forcing users to learn special icons in your project. Try to follow the design convention set by other leading software.

Appearance – determine how the screen will look like.

Usually called the user interface design or the look and feel design.
The target is to facilitate communication, provide entertainment, elicit emotion, etc
The graphic design of your multimedia product is the users first impression. A well design interfaces provide a good match between the user’s task needs, skill level and learning ability and will lead to satisfied and productive users.

Storyboarding

The storyboard is a graphical representation of the proposed multimedia project. The storyboard is an extension of ideas presented in the programme script. It is presented with a series of templates used for various purposes. These templates are very useful information and help the developer to keep a production log or history of the work. They also help in keeping track of the production design and help in identifying the design parameters for the application development.
A storyboard is a series of screens, organized sequentially, screen by screen, and each screen is sketched out with design notes and specification before final rendering. A storyboard can be developed with simple pencil and paper as well as using software applications.

Development

Planning for creation of multimedia building blocks: The development of multimedia building blocks is an extensive process and requires a number of production steps. In the planning phase of it, the basic script or content of this element is defined. The content specialist may be requested to provide such information. Availability of already available resources should also be indicated at this level.

Copyright Issue and Its Management: While designing multimedia application, copyright issue plays a crucial role because of two fundamental reasons.

Multimedia involves use of multiple media each of that media element may be protected under the copyright laws.
Original multimedia works are also protected by copyrights. The Copyright laws protect the works like Printed or Electronic text forms , computer software, Musical works, Dramatic works ,Dances and mime works , Pictorial, graphics, and sculptural works , Motion picture etc. Therefore, it is important that during the planning phase you sort the copyright issues relating to getting permissions of using copyright material from its owner.

Implementation

Defining the Production Schedule: A Timeline, defining the activities needed the person responsible for each activity and the start/end time of each activity should be developed. This establishes the standard with which to compare progress, ascertain deviations from plan and take timely corrective action.

Devising a Technical Plan: A technical plan addresses the needs of the production and the needs of the end user. It defines how an end user will experience the project and accordingly lays down the system requirement conditions like screen requirement, CD-ROM speed, memory requirement and hard disk requirement.
Project Budgeting: Once the project timeline or schedule is ready, the next step is to prepare the project budget. This is essential as time and money are not infinite resources.
Hardware Issues: For any multimedia production it is imperative to consider and finalize the "tools" and equipment necessary to develop and play back the application. Hardware issues include deciding, securing the fastest CPU and RAM and largest monitors that is affordable, sufficient disk storage for all working files and records, file sharing for collaborative work via networks or e-mail and establishing a file back-up system.
Authoring Software Selection: Selection of appropriate authoring software depends on team expertise, funds required to acquire new software and to train the manpower and what are the demands of the new title being developed. Two most widely used authoring applications today are Macromedia Director and Macromedia Authorware.

Evaluation

Evaluation is testing whether a multimedia programme fulfills the objectives set, and suggesting improvements it requires to make the programme useful for its target audience. Evaluation is not a uniform process and evaluation cannot be identical for all programmes. Evaluation invariably will have to be made of the objectives that the multimedia software wishes to fulfill.

Formative evaluation is done as a continuous process in the development of multimedia and even before the development process actually starts. Decisions taken at the beginning of the process of software development affect various aspects of the software. Answers to questions like who, why, where, and how become the guidelines for the development of the software. Depending upon the time and resources, both quantitative and qualitative methods of feedback are utilized in formative evaluation. No programme can fulfill all requirements of all learners. In fact, if a single programme can provide all the information, and answer all queries on a single topic, it should be considered successful. So, every software developer must decide and delimit the scope of the software beforehand. In other words, we have to spell out the objectives of the programme.
Summative evaluation is targeted at the end-users, in educational software a major focus of study is the software's . The teaching learning objectives identified during the needs analysis become the base of summative evaluation of academic software. Evaluation should keep the educational, entertainment, ease of use or design features in mind while conducting summative evaluation of these and then overall impact on learning. Suggestions on the basis of summative evaluation may be for (i) short-term and (ii) long-term changes in the programme. Short-term changes may be based on your own observations and the feedback from the users and the long-term changes may be made on the basis of the decisions of the curricular design and on the basis of suggestions given by the development agencies and the organisations using your software, if it is being used outside your institution.

If you find this page too long and winding to comprehend, try this: Multimedia Production Process on Workflowy

Elements of Design & Layout

2024-03-25T10:00:11.021000Z

1. Line

The first and most basic element of design is that of the line. In drawing, a line is the stroke of the pen or pencil but in graphic design, it’s any two connected points. Lines are useful for dividing space and drawing the eye to a specific location. For example, think about how a magazine uses lines to separate content, headlines and side panels.

Here are a few examples of what we traditionally think of when we think of lines:

Explore the power of lines to create visual interest in your design projects with these geometric background patterns:

2. Color

Color is one of the most obvious elements of design, for both the user and the designer. It can stand alone, as a background, or be applied to other elements, like lines, shapes, textures or typography. Color creates a mood within the piece and tells a story about the brand. Every color says something different, and combinations can alter that impression further.

Check out these classic swatches and see what vintage colors can do for your design pieces:

3. Shape

Shapes, geometric or organic, add interest. Shapes are defined by boundaries, such as a lines or color, and they are often used to emphasize a portion of the page. Everything is ultimately a shape, so you must always think in terms of how the various elements of your design are creating shapes, and how those shapes are interacting.

4. Space

Negative space is one of the most commonly underutilized and misunderstood aspects of designing for the page. The parts of the site that are left blank, whether that’s white or some other color, help to create an overall image. Use negative space to create shapes as you would any other element. Check out this article if you're interested in learning more about frequently used design terms like negative space.

Experiment with white space using a pre-designed template like Holo:

Neue is a great alternative if you want to apply negative space principles to enhance your next presentation:

5. Texture

It’s counter-intuitive to think about texture when the piece isn’t ever going to be touched. Websites and graphic design do rely on the look and impression of texture on the screen, however. Textures can create a more three-dimensional appearance on this two-dimensional surface. It also helps build an immersive world.

Texture packs like these make it much easier to try subtle touches of visual interest:

6. Typography

Perhaps the single most important part of graphic and web design is typography. Like color, texture, and shapes, the fonts you use tell readers you’re a serious online news magazine, a playful food blog or a vintage tea tins shop. Words are important, but the style of the words is equally essential.

These shop owners have created flexible font families that can make your text look distinctive and memorable:

7. Scale (Size)

Playing with the scale and size of your objects, shapes, type and other elements add interest and emphasis. How boring would a symmetrical website with all similarly sized ingredients be? Very. But the amount of variation will depend heavily on the content within. Subtle differences suit professional content, while bold ones prefer creative enterprises.

Tweaking size and pressure effects on your Photoshop stamp brushes can create visual interest around scale:

8. Dominance and Emphasis

While you can talk about emphasizing one thing or another, the element of emphasis has more to do with an object, color or style dominating another for a heightened sense of contrast. Contrast is intriguing, and it creates a focal point.

If you want to test out how dominance and emphasis can change your project's visual impact, try a saturated Lightroom preset like this one:

9. Balance

There are two schools of balance: symmetry and asymmetry. While most designers, artists, and creative folks much prefer asymmetry for its eye-catching nature, symmetry does have its place. Sometimes.

10. Harmony

Harmony is "The main goal of graphic design," according to Alex White, author of "The Elements of Graphic Design." Harmony is what you get when all the pieces work together. Nothing should be superfluous. Great design is just enough and never too much. Make sure all the details accord with one another before you consider the project complete.

Multimedia File Formats

2024-03-14T07:21:47.469000Z

File Standards

File standards refer to established guidelines and specifications that define the structure, format, and encoding of files used in digital media. These standards ensure consistency and compatibility across different software applications, platforms, and devices.

In multimedia production, adherence to file standards is crucial for seamless data exchange, interoperability, and the preservation of data integrity.

Communication Protocols

Communication protocols are a set of rules and conventions that govern the exchange of data between devices or systems in a network.

In multimedia production, communication protocols play a vital role in facilitating the transfer of multimedia files between different components, such as cameras, computers, and servers. These protocols ensure that data is transmitted reliably and efficiently.

Compression

The development of new ways to compress audio and video signals is critical to the new digital multimedia age. Research in signal processing and coding for digital video has been key to the success of the MPEG-2 digital video compression standard, which allows the transmission of high-quality video and audio signals over limited bandwidth.

The technology conserves bandwidth by eliminating redundant information, such as backgrounds that do not change, thus reducing the amount of data storage or transmission required to reproduce video sequences.

Video compression will always be necessary for storage and transmission, even when enormous quantities of bandwidth are available. Experts see a future in which emphasis on content will create the next revolution in multimedia technology, enhancing human communications in every context by empowering people to convey complex ideas simply and easily through digital storytelling.

Data compression is the process of encoding data using a representation that reduces the overall size of data. This reduction is possible when the original dataset contains some type of redundancy. Data compression, also called compaction, the process of reducing the amount of data needed for the storage or transmission of a given piece of information, typically by the use of encoding techniques. Multimedia compression is employing tools and techniques in order to reduce the file size of various media formats.

Decompression is the process of restoring compressed data to its original form. Data decompression is required in almost all cases of compressed data, including lossy and lossless. compression. Decompression is widely used in data communications, multimedia, audio, video and file transmissions.

The need of lossless compression techniques is required in many applications such in medical data there were no loss of information.

Lossy vs. Lossless Compression

Lossless compression reduces storage space without degrading image and time needed for computational will also decrease. The Lossless image compression algorithm for different application like medical image, Lossless inter frame coding for MRI image, Ultra sound image, Capsule Endoscopy (CE).

In information technology, lossy compression or irreversible compression is the class of data encoding methods that uses inexact approximations and partial data discarding to represent the content. These techniques are used to reduce data size for storing, handling, and transmitting content.

The following is an outline of current file formats used for the production and delivery of multimedia.

Authoring vs. Editing Tools

An authoring tool assists you in creating digital content. The tool could be something as simple as Google documents, or as complex as a video production suite.

The basic tools set for building multimedia project contains one or more authoring systems and various editing applications for text, images, sound, and motion video. A few additional applications are also useful for capturing images from the screen, translating file formats and tools for the making multimedia production easier.

In the context of images, a authoring commonly refers to software that helps to create digital drawings and pictures. While an editing tool works on an existing image to alter, combine, modify or enhance it. The main job of authoring tool is to make developing content more efficiently, and open up possibilities that would be infeasible, or too time consuming to develop without a dedicated tool.

Image authoring tools: Adobe Illustrator, CoreDraw, Adobe Photoshop, GIMP

Image editing tools: Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Lightroom, PicMonkey, Pixlr, Snapseed.

File Formats

(i) Text Formats

(a) RTF (Rich Text Format)

RTF is a proprietary document file format with published specification developed by Microsoft Corporation in 1987 for Microsoft products and for cross-platform document interchange.

(b) Plain text

Plain text files can be opened, read, and edited with most text editors. Examples include Notepad (Windows), edit (DOS), ed, emacs, vi, vim, Gedit or nano (Unix, Linux), SimpleText (Mac OS), or TextEdit (Mac OS X). Other computer programs are also capable of reading and importing plain text. Plain text is the original and ever popular method of conveying e-mail. HTML formatted e-mail messages often include an automatically-generated plain text copy as well, for compatibility reasons.

(ii) Image Formats

(a) TIFF (Tagged Image File Format)

This format is common in desktop publishing world, and almost all software packages support it. Recent versions of TIFF allow for image compression, and the format is handy for moving large files between computers.

(b) BMP (Bitmap)

This format came into use with Windows 3.1. It is uncompressed and can be quite large. For this reason, BMP is seldom used for the large or high- resolution images.

(c) DIB (Device Independent Bitmap)

This format is similar to BMP, allows files to be displayed on a variety of devices.

(d) GIF (Graphics Interchange format)

GIF is a compressed image format developed by CompuServe, an online information service. Most computer colour images and backgrounds are GIF files. This compact file format is ideal for graphics that use only few colours, and it was once the most popular format for online colour photos. The GIF format uses an 8-bit Colour Look Up Table to identify its colour values. This format is widely supported by several shareware viewers and converters.

(e) JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)

This format was designed for maximum image compression. JPEG uses loosy compression, which refers to a compression scheme that actually looses some of the data needed to reconstruct the image. It works well on photographs, naturalistic artwork, and similar material but does not work well on lettering, simple cartoons, or live drawings. The rationale behind loosy compression is that the human eye does not miss the lost information.

(f) TGA (Tagra)

This was the first popular format for high-resolution images. The name comes from the original Targa board, the first true-colour video board. Most video-capture boards support TGA, as do most high-end paint programs.

(g) PNG (Portable Network Graphics)

An extensible file format for the loss less, portable, well compressed storage of raster images. PNG provides a patent free replacement for GIF and can also replace many common uses of TIFF. PNG is designed to work well in online viewing applications, such as the worldwide web, so it is fully streamable with a progressive display option. PNG files are commonly used to store web graphics, digital photographs, and images with transparent backgrounds.

(iii) Digital Audio File Formats

(a) WAV (Waveform Audio File Format)

The most popular audio file format used mainly in windows for storing uncompressed sound files. It can be converted to other file formats like MP3to reduce the file size.

(b) MP3 (MPEG Layer-3 Format)

MPEG Layer-3 format is the most popular format downloading and storing music. The MP3 files are compressed to roughly one-tenth the size of an equivalent WAV file.

A free, open source container format that can be compared to MP3 files in terms of quality.

(d) AU

It is a standard audio file format used by Sun, Unix and Java. The audio in AU file format can be compressed.

(e) AIFF (Audio Interchange File Format)

A standard audio file format used by Apple which is like a WAV file for the Mac.

(f) WMA (Windows Media Audio)

It is a popular windows media audio format owned by Microsoft and designed with Digital Right Management (DRM) abilities for copy protection.

(g) RA (Real Audio Format)

Real Audio format is designed for streaming audio over the Internet.

The digital audio resources are usually stored as a computer file in computer‟s hard drive or CD-Rom or DVD. There are multitudes of audio file formats, but the most common formats are wave files (.WAV) and MPEG Layer-3 files (.MP3), WMA and RA. Following are the commonly used digital audio file formats (Rajashekharan & Nafala, 2009).

(iv) Digital Video File Formats

(a) AVI (Audio/Video Interleave)

AVI is the file format used by Video for Windows, one of three video technologies used on personal computers. In AVI, picture and sound elements are stored in alternate interleaved chunks in the file.

(b) MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group)

MPEG is a group of people that meet under the International Standards Organization (ISO) to generate standards for digital video and audio compression. Established in 1988, the group has produced MPEG-1, the standard on which Video CD and MP3 are based, MPEG-2, the standard on which such products as Digital Television set top boxes and DVD are based, MPEG-4, the standard for multimedia for the fixed and mobile web and MPEG-7, the standard for description and search of audio and visual content. Work on the new standard MPEG-21 "Multimedia Framework" has started in June2000. Technically speaking MPEG is not a storage format but standards for digital video and audio compression.

A video file format is a standard for encoding digital video, audio and some auxiliary information into a file. In contrast to audio and image formats, most video file formats allow a variety of codecs, both audio and video to be used.

Layers

In graphics software, a layer is the term used to describe the different levels at which you can place an object or image file. In the program you can stack, merge or define layers when creating a digital image. Layers can be partially obscured allowing portions of images within a layer to be hidden or shown in a translucent manner within another image, or you can use layers to combine two or more images into a single digital image. For the purpose of editing, working with layers allows you to go back and make changes within a layer as you work.

Layers are used in digital image editing to separate different elements of an image. A layer can be compared to a transparency on which imaging effects or images are applied and placed over or under an image. Today they are an integral feature of image editors.

Colour systems

There are two major colour systems in the digital and print design industries: the RGB color system and the CMYK color system.

In short:

RGB = Red, Green, Blue. Use for digital designs.
CMYK = Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Key. Use for anything printed.

RGB stands for Red, Green, and Blue. It’s used exclusively in the digital design industry because it represents the same colors used in computer screens, TV screens, as well as mobile device screens.

It’s an additive color system which means that the primary colors are added together in various combinations to produce a much wider spectrum of colors. These colors are produced by blending light itself by superimposing the red, green, and blue light beam. Without any intensity, each of those colors will be perceived as black, while full intensity will make them appear white.

It’s also worth mentioning that different intensities of each color will produce the hue of a particular color. The resulting color will also appear more or less saturated depending on the difference between the most and the least intensive color.

As a general rule of thumb, the RGB color system should be used only in digital designs, most commonly when designing for the web. This includes designing websites and imagery and graphics for use on websites and social media.

CMYK stands for Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Key (Black). Black, in this case, is referred to as key because it is used in the key plate which is responsible for adding the contrast and the detail for the final image.

The CMYK color system is a subtractive colour system and is most commonly referred to as the four-color process because it uses four different colors to produce different hues. The black color here is used because the other three colors combined cannot produce a fully saturated black.

In subtractive color method, a new color is created by combining colored media such as paints or ink that absorb (or subtract) some parts of the color spectrum of light and reflect the others back to the eye. Subtractive color is the process used to create color in printing. The printed page is made up of tiny halftone dots of three primary colors, cyan, magenta and yellow (CMY).

CMYK is the recommended color system for any material that will be printed. This includes business cards, brochures, letterheads, and any other business collateral.

Brightness refers to the absolute value of colors (tones) lightness/darkness.

Increasing brightness of an image will light out all colors so the original light ones will become up to white.

Reversely, decreasing brightness will darken all colors so the original shaded ones will become up to black.

Contrast is the distinction between lighter and darker areas of an image, and it rerefersto making more obvious the objects or details within an image.

Increasing contrast on an image will increase the difference between light and dark areas so light areas will become lighter and dark areas will become darker.

Reversely, decreasing the contrast will make lighter and darker areas stay approximately the same but the overall image becomes more "flat" and starts looking as if it were "washed out".

Slicing: If the file is large it will take a long time to load, especially for users with a slower connection. You can reduce the file size with compression but you can only go so far before image quality will begin to suffer.

The solution to your problem is to use image slicing – it will cut the image into smaller sections. These images will be saved as a separate file and optimized using the Save for Web command.

In addition, Photoshop creates the HTML or CSS necessary to display the sliced image. When used in a web page, each image will be reassembled in the browser using the HTML or CSS mentioned earlier to create a smooth result.

Contrast ratio: The ratio of the brightest white to the darkest black on a TV or computer monitor. The larger the number, the greater the extremes; for example, car headlights can appear brilliant next to the pitch black of the night sky. Contrast ratio is an important criterion in screen quality.

The ratio is derived by the brightest luminance divided by the darkest luminance in candelas per square meter (cd/m2). [base unit of luminous intensity] For example, if white is 98 cd/m2 and black is 0.02, the ratio is 4900:1.

Aspect ratio: The aspect ratio of an image describes the proportional relationship between its width and its height. It is commonly expressed as two numbers separated by a colon, as in 16:9.

The most common aspect ratios used today in the presentation of films in cinemas are 1.85:1 and 2.39:1. Two common videographic aspect ratios are 4:3 (1.3:1), the universal video format of the 20th century, and 16:9 (1.7:1), universal for high-definition television and European digital television. Other cinema and video aspect ratios exist, but are used infrequently.

In still camera photography, the most common aspect ratios are 4:3, 3:2, and more recently found in consumer cameras, 16:9. Other aspect ratios, such as 5:3, 5:4, and 1:1 (square format), are used in photography as well, particularly in medium format and large format.

Greyscale: Grayscale is a range of shades of gray without apparent color. The darkest possible shade is black, which is the total absence of transmitted or reflected light. The lightest possible shade is white, the total transmission or reflection of light at all visible wavelengths.

Filters: Filters are integral image processing tools used to modify or enhance images by applying various effects. They come in different types, including color filters for adjusting tones and hues, blur filters for softening edges, sharpen filters for enhancing details, and noise reduction filters for reducing unwanted graininess. These tools find applications in photography, where they are used to create artistic effects or correct imperfections, as well as in graphic design to enhance digital artwork. Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, and Lightroom are examples of software that offer a wide range of filter options for image manipulation.

Blending Tools: Blending tools play a crucial role in seamlessly combining different elements of an image or graphic. They encompass various techniques such as opacity blending, which adjusts the transparency of layers for smooth transitions, blend modes that alter how layers interact with each other, and gradient blending to blend colors smoothly across an image. These tools are extensively used in photo editing for merging multiple images or layers and in digital art to create depth and texture. Adobe Photoshop, Procreate, and Corel Painter are popular software that provides robust blending capabilities.

Image Enhancing & Designing Techniques: Image enhancing and designing techniques encompass a broad spectrum of methods aimed at improving the visual quality and aesthetics of images. These techniques include color correction for adjusting color balance and saturation, retouching for removing imperfections, adding effects like shadows and glows, and compositing to combine multiple images or elements. They find applications in various domains such as advertising, where images are enhanced to create visually appealing advertisements, and web design, where designers use these techniques to create engaging website visuals. Software like Adobe Photoshop, Lightroom, and Affinity Photo offer powerful tools for implementing these techniques effectively.

Click to access a tutorial on enhancing images

Principles of Visual Design

2024-03-25T10:00:00.438000Z

There are roughly a dozen basic principles of design that beginning and expert designers alike should keep in mind when working on their projects. In addition, there are another dozen or so "secondary" design principles that are sometimes included as basics (for example, the Gestalt Principles, typography, color, and framing). The main design principles are explained and illustrated below. There is no real consensus in the design community about what the main principles of design actually are. That said, the following twelve principles are those mentioned most often in articles and books on the subject.

Basic Design Principles

The elements, or principles, of visual design include Contrast, Balance, Emphasis, Movement, White Space, Proportion, Hierarchy, Repetition, Rhythm, Pattern, Unity, and Variety. These principles of design work together to create something that is aesthetically pleasing and optimizes the user experience.

Contrast

One of the most common complaints designers have about client feedback often revolves around clients who say a design needs to "pop" more. While that sounds like a completely arbitrary term, what the client generally means is that the design needs more contrast.

Contrast refers to how different elements are in a design, particularly adjacent elements. These differences make various elements stand out. Contrast is also a very important aspect of creating accessible designs. Insufficient contrast can make text content in particular very difficult to read, especially for people with visual impairments.

Parabola's website is an excellent example of a high-contrast design.

Balance

Every element of a design—typography, colors, images, shapes, patterns, etc.—carries a visual weight. Some elements are heavy and draw the eye, while other elements are lighter. The way these elements are laid out on a page should create a feeling of balance.

There are two basic types of balance: symmetrical and asymmetrical. Symmetrical designs layout elements of equal weight on either side of an imaginary center line. Asymmetrical balance uses elements of differing weights, often laid out in relation to a line that is not centered within the overall design.

A slightly off-centered layout lends balance between the bold image and minimalist typography on The Nue Co's website.

Emphasis

Emphasis deals with the parts of a design that are meant to stand out. In most cases, this means the most important information the design is meant to convey.

Clique's oversized typography clearly emphasizes their tagline.

Emphasis can also be used to reduce the impact of certain information. This is most apparent in instances where "fine print" is used for ancillary information in a design. Tiny typography tucked away at the bottom of a page carries much less weight than almost anything else in a design, and is therefore deemphasized.

Proportion

Proportion is one of the easier design principles to understand. Simply put, it’s the size of elements in relation to one another. Proportion signals what’s important in a design and what isn’t. Larger elements are more important, smaller elements less.

The proportional differences between the tiny type and large images clearly delineates which elements are the most important on Collin Hughes' website.

Hierarchy

Hierarchy is another principle of design that directly relates to how well content can be processed by people using a website. It refers to the importance of elements within a design. The most important elements (or content) should appear to be the most important.

Grafill's website creates hierarchy through the use of layout (the most important part is at the top), size (more important content is larger), and typography (headlines are larger than body text).

Hierarchy is most easily illustrated through the use of titles and headings in a design. The title of a page should be given the most importance, and therefore should be immediately recognizable as the most important element on a page. Headings and subheadings should be formatted in a way that shows their importance in relation to each other as well as in relation to the title and body copy.

Repetition

Repetition is a great way to reinforce an idea. It’s also a great way to unify a design that brings together a lot of different elements. Repetition can be done in a number of ways: via repeating the same colors, typefaces, shapes, or other elements of a design.

This article, for example, uses repetition in the format of the headings. Each design principle is formatted the same as the others in this section, signaling to readers that they’re all of equal importance and that they’re all related. Consistent headings unify these elements across the page.

The images on the left-hand side of Type and Pixel's website are a great example of repetition in design.

Rhythm

The spaces between repeating elements can cause a sense of rhythm to form, similar to the way the space between notes in a musical composition create a rhythm. There are five basic types of visual rhythm that designers can create: random, regular, alternating, flowing, and progressive.

Random rhythms have no discernable pattern. Regular rhythms follow the same spacing between each element with no variation. Alternating rhythms follow a set pattern that repeats, but there is variation between the actual elements (such as a 1-2-3-1-2-3 pattern). Flowing rhythms follow bends and curves, similar to the way sand dunes undulate or waves flow. Progressive rhythms change as they go along, with each change adding to the previous iterations.

The irregular spacing between the shapes in the background of TheArtCenter's website creates random rhythm.

Rhythms can be used to create a number of feelings. They can create excitement (particularly flowing and progressive rhythms) or create reassurance and consistency. It all depends on the way they are implemented.

Pattern

Patterns are nothing more than a repetition of multiple design elements working together. Wallpaper patterns are the most ubiquitous example of patterns that virtually everyone is familiar with.

In design, however, patterns can also refer to set standards for how certain elements are designed. For example, top navigation is a design pattern that the majority of internet users have interacted with.

Top navigation is one of the most ubiquitous design patterns on the internet, illustrated here on Isabelle Fox's website.

White Space

White space—also referred to as "negative space"— is the areas of a design that do not include any design elements. The space is, effectively, empty.

Many beginning designers feel the need to pack every pixel with some type of "design" and overlook the value of white space. But white space serves many important purposes in a design, foremost being giving elements of the design room to breathe. Negative space can also help highlight specific content or specific parts of a design.

It can also make elements of a design easier to discern. This is why typography is more legible when upper and lowercase letters are used since negative space is more varied around lowercase letters, which allows people to interpret them more quickly.

White space gives the simple text and illustrated content of Jan Behne's website room to "breathe" while contributing to a minimalist aesthetic.

In some cases, negative space is used to create secondary images that may not be immediately apparent to the viewer. This can be a valuable part of branding that can delight customers. Take the hidden arrow in the FedEx logo, for just one example.

Movement

Movement refers to the way the eye travels over a design. The most important element should lead to the next most important and so on. This is done through positioning (the eye naturally falls on certain areas of a design first), emphasis, and other design elements already mentioned.

The slanted images and numbers contribute to the movement principle on Abby Stolfo's website.

Variety

Variety in design is used to create visual interest. Without variety, a design can very quickly become monotonous, causing the user to lose interest. Variety can be created in a variety of ways, through color, typography, images, shapes, and virtually any other design element.

However, variety for the sake of variety is pointless. Variety should reinforce the other elements of a design and be used alongside them to create a more interesting and aesthetically pleasing outcome that improves the user’s experience.

Kennard Lilly's website background uses a variety of colors and shapes to create interest, while also placing emphasis on the primary text content.

Unity

Everyone has seen a website or other design out there that seemed to just throw elements on a page with no regard for how they worked together. Newspaper ads that use ten different fonts come to mind almost immediately.

Unity refers to how well the elements of a design work together. Visual elements should have clear relationships with each other in a design. Unity also helps ensure concepts are being communicated in a clear, cohesive fashion. Designs with good unity also appear to be more organized and of higher quality and authority than designs with poor unity.

The use of a blue throughout the design (including the blue overlays on the images), along with consistent typography and proportion, creates a sense of unity in the design.

Other Principles of Design

Other principles of design are also touched upon in various articles on the subject. These include typography, color, Gestalt Principles, grid and alignment, framing, and shape. Some definitely fit the definition of "principles" while others are more like elements of design.

Typography refers to the way text is arranged in a design. That includes the fonts used, their spacing, size, and weight, and the way different text elements relate to each other. Good typographic design is heavily influenced by all of the other design principles mentioned earlier in this article.

The use of color in design is one of the most psychologically important parts of a design and has a huge influence on user experience. Color psychology and theory heavily influences some of the other principles mentioned earlier.

Gestalt Principles include similarity, continuation, closure, proximity, figure/ground, and symmetry & order (also called prägnanz). Some of those principles are closely related to the principles mentioned above.

Grid and alignment are closely related to balance and refer to the way elements are arranged in relation to an invisible grid on the page.

Framing refers to how the primary subject of a design is placed in relation to other elements on the page. It’s most often heard referred to in cinematography or photography, with how the main focus of an image is placed within the overall image. But the principle carries over into design.

Shape is also a major part of any design, both in terms of specific shapes used as elements within the design, and the overall shape of the design itself. Different shapes can evoke different feelings, i.e circles are organic and fluid, while squares are more rigid and formal, and triangles give a sense of energy or movement.

These design "principles" or elements are important aspects of good design and should be considered alongside the other basic principles to create the best user experiences.

Conclusion

What constitutes the "basic" principles of design is certainly up for debate. But understanding and implementing the principles covered above is vital to the success of any design project.

Designers should aim to understand how each of these design principles actually impact their work. Studying how other designers have implemented these ideas to structure their own designs is also an incredibly valuable tool in learning to create better designs.

It’s entirely possible to create a good design without a thorough understanding of these elements and principles of design. However, it’s typically done by "designer’s intuition" and may take a lot of trial and error in order to create something that actually looks good and creates an optimal user experience. Designers could save a lot of time and energy by practicing the principles we have discussed until they become second-nature.

Multimedia in Journalism and Learning

2024-03-25T10:00:17.019000Z

Multimedia journalism involves the use of text, images, sound, video clips, graphics to tell stories in an engaging way. Professionals who work in multimedia journalism leverage digital tools and social media platforms to share their stories with a particular audience online. The purpose of these stories is to inform, educate or entertain that specific audience.

Multimedia journalism also requires using research skills to find newsworthy stories and to learn more about niche markets. Once their stories have been live for some time, multimedia journalists use analysis skills and tools to measure their content’s success.

Multimedia journalists often work for newspapers, radio or television stations or use computers in social media areas. They sample animations, data, video, graphics and audio in multimedia. Multimedia journalism is used extensively in almost all fields today. Multimedia journalists read documents, observe events and interview people. They take notes, tape interviews and verify information about stories they are working on. They often use video cameras, sound systems and editing equipment to broadcast their thinking on specific stories which are in the news or are part of a specific story they are working on. They sometimes solicit public comment through the use of social media like Twitter or Facebook.

Knowledge Acquisition

The knowledge transfer process in the digital age is composed of various basic ingredients. "Knowledge transfer" refers to learning in the broadest sense, including lifelong learning, professional training including training of journalists, librarians, decision-makers, community workers, knowledge workers and any audience for "learning" or, simply, for knowledge acquisition.

The presumption that knowledge is a key driver of social and economic development - which includes notions of cultural identity, empowerment, inclusion and human security and dignity. Today, ICTs afford an exciting opportunity to begin questioning some of the basic assumptions and choices that were predicated on them and to re-open discussions around the nature of learning, the content of learning and the role of facilitators and places for learning. Learning modes are set to become a diversified mixture of self-instruction, group work and tutoring. This process will be complicated and difficult, particularly as there are many different audiences of learners to be targeted - students, skilled workers, general public, young children, out-of-school, primary age, secondary, tertiary, etc.

The solution lies essentially in the organizational, pedagogical and cultural realms, but ICTs can have a key enhancing role if applied correctly. The new concepts of on-line connectivity, virtual environments (choice of delivery media) and group-ware methodologies can contribute to building a tradition of life-long learning.

The trend is now towards multimedia systems combining text, data, sound, all types of image (single frame, video, 3-D) and even touch and other senses (virtual reality). Although multimedia have mainly been successfully applied to entertainment and to very specialized training (e.g. flight simulators), their potential for contribution to "mainstream" education is enormous provided that new paradigms evolve for conceiving, developing and financing such applications. The shared presence of "virtual communities" holds particular promise for educational applications.

Multimedia applications are often used to deliver information which is more powerful than printed learning resources such as printed text book. It also allows users to interact with the information quickly and accurately. Educational multimedia applications enable students to get information in various formats. Examples of multimedia applications are World Wide Web, courseware, interactive TV, computer games, and virtual reality.

In education, multimedia application is used to provide computer based training courses and reference books such as encyclopedia. A computer based training courses lets the students go through a series of presentation, text about a particular topic in various information format. Multimedia applications are used by teachers and lecturers to convey information such as lecture slides, assessment materials and others learning resources. It can also use by students to learn new skills and knowledge without lecturers guidance.

Multimedia applications for educational purposes are similar like the printed text books and other teaching materials, but they can be come in a wider range of sources. The potential of multimedia applications for educational purposes is well-recognized by the universities, school, government and private organization. Educational multimedia applications can be more focused on specific objectives or in more comprehensive ways.

There has been an increase in demand of educational multimedia applications at all level of citizens for them to apply their knowledge in different field of study and situations. Multimedia applications had greatly influenced the education in many ways. They give teachers or lecturers to prepare study materials for students in a more clearly and comprehensive way such as demonstrating and visualizing the study material in a multimedia presentation.

Multimedia applications can also be used as a source of information. Multimedia applications can be developed to enhance the learning process and increase the interaction between students and lecturers. Lecturers can make the lesson more interesting by using the multimedia presentations. As the information is presented in variety ways, multimedia applications enhance the user experience and make the learners easier to grasp the information.

educational multimedia applications use a combination of multimedia elements to present and emphasize particular points only, thus it is more effective because the students are easier to put attention on it rather than on static printed learning materials. Students often split their attention when they are forced to focus information that is far apart, or it is presented at two separate points at the same time. Therefore, when the related content is presented in words and picture at the same time, the learning outcome is more effective. Research found that students will participate in the lesson more actively when teachers or lecturers integrates multimedia element in learning process because they will pay more attention as the lesson becomes more interesting.

Multimedia applications have a lot of advantages for the education purposes which can help students have further understanding on certain information or topics. Screen design, interaction and feedback, navigation, video and audio elements are the characteristic of multimedia applications. There is no doubt that the multimedia applications can be used as a tool to assist teachers and lecturers to achieve educational effectiveness. However, multimedia applications for educational purposes have its disadvantages too. Developing a good multimedia application has high cost that involves time and effort of the developer. There are few characteristic that a developer tries to improve the effectiveness of educational multimedia applications which are attract student’s attention, help students organize the information and facilitate lesson navigation and integrate all the information into knowledge.

Glossary of Typographic Terms

2024-03-25T10:00:30.503000Z

Learning the building blocks of typography will help you better understand how to pick a suitable font and apply it effectively within your design projects.

The Basics: Typefaces Categories & Styles

01. Font/Typeface:

Back in the days of metal type and printing presses, fonts and typefaces were two different things — the typeface was the specific design of the letters, say Times New Roman or Baskerville; while the font referred to the particular size or style of that typeface, say 10 point regular or 24 point italic (each created as its own collection of cast metal letters and other characters). Today, however, many designers use the terms more or less interchangeably. The best and most straightforward modern definition I’ve run across (courtesy of Fontshop) goes as follows:

"A collection of letters, numbers, punctuation, and other symbols used to set text (or related) matter. Although font and typeface are often used interchangeably, font refers to the physical embodiment (whether it’s a case of metal pieces or a computer file) while typeface refers to the design (the way it looks). A font is what you use, and a typeface is what you see."

02. Character:

An individual symbol of the full character set that makes up a typeface; may take the form of a letter, number, punctuation mark, etc.

03. Alternate Character / Glyph:

A non-standard (sometimes decorative) variation of a character that comes as an extra option with a font file.

04. Serif:

A short line or stroke attached to or extending from the open ends of a letterform; also refers to the general category of typefaces that have been designed with this feature.

05. Sans-Serif / Sans:

Literally "without line"; the general category of typefaces (or an individual typeface) designed without serifs.

06. Italic:

A slanted version of a typeface (slants from left to right); a true italic is uniquely designed, more than a tilted version of the upright (a.k.a. "roman") typeface.

The Foundation: Positioning & Spacing

07. Baseline:

The imaginary line on which most letters and other characters sit.

08. Cap Line:

The imaginary line that marks the upper boundary of capital letters and some lowercase letters’ ascenders (see Ascender definition in the next section).

09. X-Height:

The height of a typeface’s lowercase letters (disregarding ascenders and descenders).

10. Tracking / Letter-Spacing:

The uniform amount of spacing between characters in a complete section of text (sentence, line, paragraph, page, etc.).

11. Kerning:

The horizontal spacing between two consecutive characters; adjusting the kerning creates the appearance of uniformity and reduces gaps of white space between certain letter combinations.

12. Leading / Line-Spacing:

The vertical spacing between lines of text (from baseline to baseline).

The Anatomy of a Letter

13. Stroke:

A single linear element that forms part of a character; may be straight or curved.

14. Stem:

The main (usually vertical) stroke of a letterform.

15. Arc of Stem:

A curved stroke that is continuous with a stem.

16. Foot:

The part of the stem that rests on the baseline.

17. Descender:

A piece of a letter that extends below the baseline.

18. Ascender:

A part of a lowercase letter that rises above the main body of the letter (above the x-height).

19. Joint:

The point where a stroke connects to a stem.

20. Apex:

The uppermost connecting point of a letterform where two strokes meet; may be rounded, sharp/pointed, flat/blunt, etc.

21. Vertex:

The point at the bottom of a character where two strokes meet.

22. Crotch:

The inside angle where two strokes meet.

23. Arm:

A horizontal stroke that does not connect to a stem on one or both ends.

24. Leg:

A short, descending stroke on a letterform.

25. Shoulder:

A curved stroke extending down from a stem.

26. Bar / Crossbar:

An enclosed horizontal stroke.

27. Cross Stroke:

A line that extends across/through the stem of a letter.

28. Bowl:

The closed, round or oval curve of a letter.

29. Counter:

An enclosed or partially enclosed area of white space within a letter; could be bounded by curves, strokes, or stems.

30. Aperture:

The opening or partially enclosed negative space created by an open counter.

31. Double-Story:

A type of letter that has two counters (as opposed to the single-story version, which has only one counter).

32. Terminal:

The end of any stroke that doesn’t include a serif; includes ball terminals (circular in shape) and finials (curved or tapered in shape).

33. Swash:

A decorative extension or stroke on a letterform; may be part of a letter by design or available either as an additional glyph or as an add-on to the standard character.

34. Ligature:

Two or more letters that are connected to form one character; primarily decorative (the embellishment that connects the two letters is called a "gadzook").

Make sure to bookmark this page as your typography glossary and a complete visual reference to all the typographic anatomy terms covered in this article!

Making Packaged and Live News Reports

2024-03-25T09:55:49.779000Z

Television journalism consists of the broadcast of either packaged news or live news. A packaged news story is one, which is explored, shot, edited and most importantly, broadcast after the event has happened. A live news story is one which captures and broadcasts the action of an event as it happens. Depending on whether a journalist is preparing a packaged or a live news story, there is a certain well-defined process to be followed. The processes of packaged news reporting and live news reporting are described below.

Packaged News Stories

The word ‘package’ refers to a complete product. In other words, a news package is a story, which has been carefully scripted, shot, edited, and thus given a final shape, which contains all the elements of a finished product. The steps involved in the making of a news package are as follows.

Steps in the making of a packaged news item

The reporter gets information about a potential news story from a source. This source may be an individual or an organization. Experienced reporters build up a network of reliable sources over time, and depend on them for the first vital leads to a story.
The reporter then researches the story. For this, he or she may conduct interviews, consult books, magazines, newspapers, the internet and go through relevant documents and archive material. From this process, the full background to the story emerges.
After this, the reporter, along with a cameraperson, travels to the various locations, which are relevant to the story. There, the cameraperson shoots visuals and cutaways related to the story, while the reporter speaks to people on the location and explores the story. The cameraperson then shoots interviews of the relevant people by the reporter and also record their sound bites and cutaways. The reporter must ensure that the coverage of the story is balanced and impartial and that all sides to the story are represented. The cameraperson then records one or more PTCs PTC = Piece to Camera) given by the reporter on the location. The PTC is any such recorded clip in which the reporter who is present at the location speaks directly to the camera. Many news stories end with a Closing PTC in which the reporter gives a byline to the story.
After this, the reporter and cameraperson return to the office of their organization. The reporter previews the recorded tapes, which means that he or she watches them carefully to identify the shots, interviews and sound bites which are usable. The usable clips are called OK takes, while the unusable ones are called NG takes. OK stands for ‘All Correct’, while NG stands for ‘No Good’. The OK shots, interviews and sound-bites are logged, which means that the reporter prepares a list which mentions each of them along with the time-codes of their in and out points. The time code, also called TC, is a numerical code which appears near the bottom of the screen during playback, and which indicates exactly how much of the tape has been played in terms of hours, minutes, seconds and frames. The ‘in point’ of a clip is the point where it starts, and the ‘out point’ is where it ends. The ‘log sheet’ is the list of clips along with the time codes of their in and out points that is prepared through the process of logging.
The reporter then submits the tape or tapes along with the log-sheets to a facility in the news organization called ‘Ingest’. Ingest is a technical facility with its own staff. It consists of a server to which various computer terminals in the news channel are connected. The staff in the Ingest facility captures the OK takes mentioned in the log sheets. Capturing is the process whereby the OK shots, interviews and sound bites are copied into the memory of the server. Alternatively, the reporter may seek to capture the OK takes in the memory of an individual computer. The first process is the standard one in most news channels, since it is a more time saving process. This is because after the tapes have been captured in the memory of a common server, the reporter can use any computer terminal in the office to access and edit them, depending on whichever terminal is free at that time.
While the capturing process takes place the reporter writes a script, which includes voice-overs VO and which states exactly which sound bites and PTCs are to be used. The most common pattern for a news script is VO-BiteVO-Bite-VO-Bite-VO-PTC. This is not a hard and fast rule however. The average duration of a news story is between two to three minutes, and the script must be written accordingly. Unlike in other forms of broadcast media, such as in documentary filmmaking, news-scriptwriting usually happens after, and not before the shooting. Usually, and especially in hard news stories, the content of the script must be presented according to the formula 5 Ws + 1 H What , Where, When, Who, Why and How.
Next, the reporter records the voice-overs written in the script. Usually, a lip-microphone is connected to each computer terminal and the reporter can record the VOs directly at that terminal. If a lip-mic is not connected to the terminal then the reporter needs to get the VOs recorded according to the prevailing system in the organization.
The reporter then edits the story, with or without the help of a video editor. An experienced reporter is expected to know enough video editing to be able to edit the story himself or herself. Editing involves organizing the shots, interviews sound bites and voice-overs in a coordinated and correctly ordered manner. At this point various graphic elements, such as Astons, bugs and slugs may be added.
The story has now been given the final shape and is now called a news package. A senior member of the editorial team who decides whether or not it should be included in a news bulletin for telecast now screens it. If approved, the package is included in a list called the Rundown. The Rundown is a list, which states exactly what is telecast in each news bulletin in which order.

Live News Reports

Live News Reports The word ‘live’ refers to the broadcast of an event which takes place as the event happens. Thus, for example, if a political rally is taking place and a reporter is present at the location of the rally, then he or she can report the event and its developments as they take place. The audience gets to witness images and hear the sounds of the location almost as if they were present there themselves.

The process of live reporting is not neatly divided into steps but is more of a coordinated process in which several things take place simultaneously.

The reporter is present at the location, and is accompanied by a vehicle called an OB Van, which is short for Outdoor Broadcast Van. The OB Van is crucial to linking the reporter to his news organization. It consists of a technically equipped van to which a camera and microphone are connected. The reporter observes and explains the events to the camera as they happen and the OB Van relays these images by means of wireless transmission to a satellite, which then relays them to the news organization.
Sometimes, there may be several reporters present at different locations simultaneously, and each of them may be sending back images and sounds of their locations to the news organization at the same time. Thus, there are inputs coming to the news organization from several sources simultaneously. All of these signals reach a technical facility in the news organization called the PCR, which means Production Control Room.

Also, a camera in the studio is also covering the news anchor, and the signal from that camera also reaches the PCR.
The PCR is that central place in the news organization which decides which of these various signals must be put on air at which precise point in time. Within the PCR, there are several monitors television screens pres ent, each of which shows the signal coming from any one camera or OB Van. There is also another monitor which shows exactly which of these signals is being telecast at that moment. The technical staff in the PCR keep switching between various signals, alternatively putting one, then another, and then a third, and so on, on air. This process is called live editing, online editing, or switching.

Writing News Stories for Television

2024-03-25T09:56:16.082000Z

Although all journalism should be a flow of information between the journalist and the reader, listener or viewer, in the broadcast media it is of vital importance that the reporter - through the newsreader or announcer - actually speaks to the audience.

Key writing rules to follow:

KISS - keep it short and simple
Do not use quotes on radio or in television scripts
Avoid unfamiliar words
Repeat important words
Keep punctuation simple
Simplify numbers
Avoid abbreviations
Show how to pronounce difficult words

It may be that you are broadcasting to millions of people, but you must write your story as if you are telling it to just one person. You should write as if someone you know personally is listening. Picture a favourite uncle or aunt, cousin or brother and imagine that you are speaking to him or her.

Your style must, therefore, be conversational and as far as possible simple.

Remember also that, unlike a newspaper story, your listeners or viewers cannot go back on the bulletin to hear again something they have missed. Nor can their eyes jump around within a story or a page searching for the information they want. In broadcasting the words and sentences are heard once only, one after the other, and all the information must be presented in such a way that it is understandable straight away. This is often called a linearflow of information because it goes in a line in one direction

You must help your listeners and viewers by presenting information concisely and logically.

You must always remember that by switching on a radio or television set, the listeners are inviting you into their homes, their workplaces and their cars.

Write and speak as if you were talking to them as individuals, face-to-face.

Keep it short and simple.

You should not try to get too much information into any sentence. Although you use the inverted pyramid style of story writing, you may only be able to use one or two concepts (ideas) per sentence. You cannot get as much detail into a radio or television story as you can into a newspaper story.

You cannot expect your listener to understand the Who? What? Where? When? Why? and How? of a story all in the first paragraph or even the first two paragraphs. Although as a good journalist you should not leave any essential questions unanswered, you may find that it takes all the time available for a single story to communicate only a few basic facts. It is often said that you could put all the words in a ten minute radio bulletin on one page of a newspaper.

Stick to one or two key points per sentence. No sentence should be longer than 20 words, except in unusual circumstances. Just as a mother feeds a child one spoonful at a time, allowing the child to swallow each spoonful before taking the next, you should spoon feed your listener. Give them one piece of information at a time so that it can be digested before the next piece.

Where necessary, split a long and involved sentence into two or more shorter clearer sentences, as you would in conversation.

RIGHT:  
Japanese boats have returned to fish in Fijian waters.                
They were banned last year because of an international row over net sizes.        
Now they are back in the waters off Vanua Levu.        
WRONG:
Japanese fishing boats, which were banned from Fijian waters during an international row over net sizes last year, returned to fish in the waters off Vanua Levu on Monday.

It may take more words, but what good is the most skilful sentence in history if the listener cannot understand it?

It might help you to write short and simple sentences if you first try to imagine how the story might appear in a newspaper headline.

Once you have reduced it to the bones of a headline, you can put some flesh on it for radio and television. Don't forget though that, whereas newspaper headlines can be incomplete sentences, without words like the and a, radio and television news must be in complete sentences.

Look at the following example and notice how we take the details in the information, strip it down to the bones by writing a headline, then add words to turn the headline into a complete sentence, suitable for radio or television.

INFORMATION:
A contract for the construction of a new road between Madang and Lae has been awarded to a Korean company.
HEADLINE:
Koreans to build new road
INTRO:
A Korean company is to build a new road between Madang and Lae.

Use up-to-date tenses

The single greatest advantage of broadcasting is immediacy. You can inform your listener as an event is happening, or immediately afterwards, without waiting for typesetters or printing presses. Do not waste that advantage.

Keep all tenses as up-to-date as possible. Use the present tense or the tense nearest to the present and, whenever possible, use a continuous tense to tell your listener that a thing is still happening, as they listen.

Compare the tenses in the following examples. The verbs are in italics.

RIGHT:  
The Prime Minister says he expects an increase in imports this year.   
WRONG:               
The Prime Minister said he expected an increase in imports this year. 


RIGHT:
Leaders of the main opposition parties in Fiji have been meeting.    
WRONG:               
Leaders of the main opposition parties in Fiji met over the weekend

There is no room for words such as "yesterday", "last week" or "last Monday" in the intro of a broadcast news story. If the date makes the story seem old or stale, hide it down in the main body of the story.

Do not use quotes

Do not use quotes in radio or television stories. If you want your listeners to hear the words as they were spoken, record them on tape and use them as actuality (the actual sound of something or someone, sometimes also called audio). This ability to hear people speak is one of the great benefits of broadcasting.

Also, quotes in broadcasting cannot work as they do in print, where the readers can see the quotation marks. It is just as effective to turn quotes into reported speech (see Chapter 8: Quotes).

Bad journalists try to get round this rule by using the words "quote" and "unquote" at the beginning and end of direct quotes. This sounds clumsy. It is much better in radio to rewrite quotes in reported speech. Compare the following sentences:

RIGHT:
The chairman said it was a crying shame.
WRONG:
The chairman said: "It is a crying shame." 
WRONG:
The chairman said, quote: It is a crying shame - unquote.

If you feel the need to stress a certain word or phrase in reported speech, to emphasise that these are the actual words used, underline them so the newsreader can add the stress with their voice. Again, it is better to use actuality where possible.

Some journalists mistakenly think that they will be safe from defamation if they add "quote ... unquote" around danger words. In law, it does not matter whether words are in quotes or reported speech; they could still be defamatory.

The only time you would use quotes in television is when you present them as text on screen. This most commonly happens when it is important the the viewer can see the exact words used, for example in quoting a judge from a court case where audio or actuality of his voice is not available. These quotes are usually kept very short and given in large, easy-to-read type, punctuated as they would be in print media.

Put attribution first

Attribution in radio and television goes at the front of a sentence, as it would if you were talking to that favourite aunt. This is unlike traditional newspaper style, which commonly puts attribution such as he said at the end of the sentence, after the quote. In newspapers, readers can see both the quote and the attribution together. In radio and television, your listeners need to know who was speaking before they can judge what was said. Remember the linear structure of broadcast news.

Compare the following sentences. The attribution is in italics.

RIGHT:  
A senior government economist says that people in Papua New Guinea are paid too much.
WRONG:
People are paid too much in Papua New Guinea, a senior government economist said last night.

By putting the attribution up front, you are also making your sentence more active, important for broadcast news.

Avoid unfamiliar words

If a newspaper reader does not understand a word, he or she can return to it and maybe look it up in a dictionary before proceeding to the rest of the story. Your listeners cannot do this.

By the time they have worked out the meaning of an unfamiliar word, the story will be over and they will have missed all the other details.

If you have to use an unfamiliar word or name, you must not hit your listeners with it without warning. You should never put it as the first word in your paragraph, but work your way towards it over familiar ground.

In the following examples, the unfamiliar words are in italics.

RIGHT:
In Mexico, the volcano Popocatepetl has erupted again.            


It showered lava and ash for 50 kilometres around.   
WRONG:
Popocatepetl, a volcano in Mexico, erupted again yesterday, showering lava and ash on the ground over a radius of 50 km.

People's names can cause problems too, unless they are familiar. For example, the name of your Prime Minister or President may not cause problems, but an unfamiliar name might, as in the following example:

RIGHT:
A school inspector in the East Sepik says teachers don't listen enough to their students. 
The inspector, Mr Arianthis Koloaloa, says ... 
WRONG:
Mr Arianthis Koloaloa, a school inspector in the East Sepik, has criticised teachers for not listening to their students.

Repeat important words

Because radio and television listeners do not pay attention all the time, and because people often switch on their sets half-way through a bulletin, it is important that you repeat the essential features several times in the story.

They might be half-listening to the radio or TV until something - perhaps a word relevant to them or their interest - triggers their attention. They then 'tune in' with their mind but, because of the linear nature of broadcast news, they cannot go back and retrieve any words they have missed. So repeat important words at least once in the story.

In the following example, the words Korean, Madang, Lae and road are repeated:

A Korean company is to build a new road between Madang and Lae.

They estimate it will cost more than one-hundred-million kina.

Work on the new Madang to Lae road should begin in August.

The Prime Minister, Mr Rabbie Namaliu, says the Koreans were awarded the road contract because of their years of experience.

Of course, too much repetition can be boring, so do not overdo it. A simple tip is to cover the intro and see whether or not you can still understand the story from what is left. Try it with the example above.

Keep punctuation simple

Keep punctuation as simple as possible. In broadcast news, punctuation marks are not only there for grammatical reasons. They also give the newsreader clues on breathing.

In general, the only punctuation marks you need are the full stop, comma, question mark and dash. Some writers like to use a series of dots to denote a pause, as in the following example:

The Prime Minister... speaking at a business lunch... said the economy is looking brighter.

Where two words go together to form a single concept, hyphenate them whether or not it is grammatically correct to do so. For example, write mini-market, winding-rope, pocket-book.

Simplify numbers

Numbers should be included to inform, not to confuse - either the newsreader or the listener. Wherever there is the possibility of confusing the newsreader, write the number in full.

RIGHT:
two-million, nine-hundred-and-eighty thousand, and two.
WRONG:
2,980,002

Better still, round off large figures, so that the example above becomes "almost three million". This simplifies matters for both the newsreader and the listeners.

The same rule applies to fractions. Write them in full, for example one-half, three-quartersetc.

With money, spell out the units, so that $1.50 becomes "one-dollar-fifty".

Many newsreaders even prefer the date to be spelt out, as in the following:

RIGHT:
The 1st of March, 2007.        
WRONG:
March 1, 2007.

Avoid abbreviations

As a general rule, avoid abbreviations. You can, of course, use "Mr", or "Mrs" in your script, but do not abbreviate other titles.

Where the initials of an organisation are read as a word, write them as such, for example Nato, Asean, Apec.

But if they must be read individually, separate each letter with a dot, as in U.N., P.N.G. or Y.M.C.A.. Some broadcasters prefer to hyphenate the letters, to make it even clearer that they must be read out separately, for example P-N-G.

The first reference must be written in full unless the initials are widely understood on their own - as are the three examples above.

Do not use the abbreviations a.m. or p.m. There is always a better way which tells your listeners much more. Phrases like "this morning" or "tomorrow afternoon" mean much more to most listeners. See how much clearer the correct sentence is in the following example.

RIGHT:
The rocket was launched at three this morning.   
WRONG:
The rocket was launched at 3 a.m. today.

Additional factors in writing for television

Although most of the rules for broadcast writing (such as KISS) apply to both radio and television, there are a few additional factors to remember when writing for television.

Making television news is a more complicated process than producing radio news - which can often be done by one person. Television always involves several people, performing specialist tasks such as camera operating, scriptwriting, bulletin presenting, directing, studio managing, lighting and sound mixing.

Television also involves two simultaneous methods of presenting information - sound and vision. Of the two, vision is usually the most effective in giving details quickly. For example, you could take several minutes to describe a crash scene which can be understood from a ten-second film segment. The words in television usually support the pictures, not the other way round. That is why television reporters usually write their scripts after they have edited the videotape (or film). You usually have to write your script so that the words match the pictures which are on the screen. This requires good language skills, especially in simplifying complex language. If a newsreader has to read your script live - perhaps from an autocue - it will help them if you keep the words and grammar simple and the sentences short. (An autocue – also called a teleprompter - is a device which projects a magnified image of the script on a clear screen in front of the camera lens, in such a way that only the presenter can see it. It is invisible to the viewers at home. It is used so presenters do not need to keep looking down at their scripts.)

Of course, the words become more important when there are no pictures to illustrate the story, only the sight of the newsreader's head and shoulders. But you should always try to think of ways of presenting some of your information visually, otherwise you are wasting half of your resources (the vision). For example, if you are telling about a new tax on beer, you will probably simultaneously show pictures of a brewery and of beer being produced and consumed. You might also want to show a graph showing how beer sales and taxes have increased over the past few years. And you may want a clip of the relevant minister explaining why he is increasing the tax.

As well as being aware of how your words will support the pictures, you must also consider the effect the pictures will have on your viewers' ability to listen to the words. For example, if you have some very dramatic pictures of an explosion, you should not write your script in such a way that the important facts are given while viewers have all their attention on the picture. Perhaps leave a couple of seconds without any commentary during the explosion, then bring your viewers' attention back to the words gradually. Remember that every time you change the picture on the screen, your viewers' attention is distracted away from the words while they concentrate on the new image. Bear this in mind when writing your script to fit the edited pictures.

Because television viewers have to concentrate on both sight and sound, you cannot expect them to concentrate on lots of details while there are interesting pictures on the screen. So if you want to give some very important details, either do it when the camera returns to a picture of the newsreader, or do it through graphics such as maps, diagrams, graphs or tables or through captions.

Captions

The names and titles of speakers are usually written on the screen in captions. These must be simple and clear, so that your viewers do not have to spend much time reading them. Remember too that your viewers may not all be able to read. If you know that literacy rates are low among your audience, putting the written word on the screen will not alone explain essential details. For example, in countries with high literacy rates, television newsreaders or reporters use only captions to identify speakers. You may need to both present a caption and also read the name aloud.

Subtitles

Subtitles are text versions of the spoken words in the bulletin or program. They usually run along the bottom of the screen so viewers can read them while still watching the pictures and listening to the words being spoken. They are mainly used for two reasons: to assist viewers who have hearing difficulties (called closed captions) or to translate words in languages other than the language of broadcast. They generally need to be prepared beforehand and they require concentration from the viewer, so they should be done professionally if possible.

To avoid having to use subtitled translations of words spoken in another language, it is possible to over-dub what the speaker is saying by fading down the original sound and getting another voice to read a translation over it, either a fellow journalist or a professional voice actor. Simpler still is to fade down the words being spoken so they can barely be heard then the newsreader (or reporter) can summarise what is said in reported speech.

Stand-ups

One final word about writing for stand-ups. These are the times when a reporter speaks directly into the camera at the scene of the story. Each stand-up segment in news is normally about 10 or 20 seconds long, meaning that it can contain several sentences of spoken word. Some reporters write the words they will say in sentences on a notebook then read them out in front of the camera. However, this means that the reporter cannot look into the camera while also looking down to read from the notebook.

It is better either to memorise the sentences then put the notebook to one side or to remember only the key words you want to use then speak sentences directly into the camera. In both cases, it helps if you keep the language simple and your sentences short. You must also avoid using words which might be difficult to pronounce. If you try to say "The previous Prime Minister passed away in Papeete", you will get into difficulties because of all the "p" sounds. Rewrite the sentence as "The last Prime Minister died in Papeete."

Program Research

2024-03-25T09:56:54.493000Z

Research is a careful and detailed study into a specific problem, concern, or issue using the scientific method. This is best accomplished by turning the issue into a question, with the intent of the research to answer the question. It is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of critical information; and analysis and interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines.

Research usually mean good library. Currently with high tech computer searches for topics, research is easier and faster than ever, but good research is time consuming. One of the best ways to do quality research is to organize. Research can be undertaken in any of several well-proven ways. You can consult encyclopedias, visit a library, or search the Internet. You have probably used a library catalog for a research paper.

Research for scriptwriting is not much different. Everyone finds a particular style or method that works for him or her. Index cards are effective because they enable you to shuffle and reorder the material, and they help you to find the right sequence for ideas. Some scripting software, such as Movie Magic Screenwriter (see the website link), has an electronic index card system that allows you to do it all on computer.

Even entertainment concepts require research. An imaginary story is often set in a time period or has a background. To make a story more believable, you need authentic detail embedded in the scenes. If your story concerns airline pilots, you need to know how they talk and what their world is like. Part of the process of scriptwriting often involves background research and investigation of the subject matter before you define the objective or outline the content. Experience tells you when you need to get information. Sometimes it is at the beginning of the creative thinking process. Sometimes it is in the middle. Research could be necessary to define the target audience.

If a producer organizes the topic carefully from the beginning, the whole organization of further research, the format or outline of the documentary, the pre-production script, and the order of videotaping the production will be created at the same time. Quality research can also reveal potential locations for videotaping, available prerecorded videotape and film, the acquisition of still photographs, contact persons, and potential interviewees, besides the content nature of the topic itself.

Sources of information

Historical documents - Historical documents are original documents that contain important historical information about a person, place, or event and can thus serve as primary sources as important ingredients of the historical methodology. Anthropologists, historians and archeologists generally are more interested in documents that describe the day-to-day lives of ordinary people, indicating what they ate, their interaction with other members of their households and social groups, and their states of mind. It is this information that allows them to try to understand and describe the way society was functioning at any particular time in history.

Anthropology is the scientific study of humans, human behavior and societies in the past and present. Social anthropology studies patterns of behaviourand cultural anthropology studies cultural meaning, including norms and values.
Visual anthropology is a subfield of social anthropology that is concerned, in part, with the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, new media. Visual anthropology methods include photo elicitation, the use of images to stimulate culturally relevant reflections from informants. The end results are narratives (film, video, photo essays) which communicate typical events of a cultural scene.

Statistical documents - Research enables you to say with conviction how many Americans die annually from smoking-related diseases. If you are devising a PSA about battered women, you need statistical facts and possibly psychological background before you can think about what is relevant, let alone make an assertion about the topic. Before you can say it, you need to know it. So research is gath- eringinformation that enables you to be authoritative and specific about the subject.

Journals - A journal is a scholarly publication containing articles written by researchers, professors and other experts. Journals focus on a specific discipline or field of study. Unlike newspapers and magazines, journals are intended for an academic or technical audience, not general readers.

Target audience - The target audience should determine your program’s coverage and style. It is self-evident that the sort of program you would make for a group of content experts would differ from a program made for young children. Once you are in the actual preproduction stage, you can define the target audience further in terms of demographics—such as gender, ethnicity, education, income level, household size, religious preference, or geographical location (urban or rural)—as well as of psychographics, such as consumer buying habits, values, a n d lifestyles. Advertisers and other video communicators make extensive use of such demographic and psychographic descriptors, but you needn't be that specific in your initial program proposal.

Interview and observation - Interviewing and observation are two methods of collecting qualitative data as part of research. Both tools are used by academic researchers and in fields such as market research. There are two types of observation. In a participant observation, the researcher will make herself part of the community that she is observing. A direct observation can be more focused, as the researcher often calls in her subjects and observes them for a specified amount of time.

Interviews vary from structured, in which a set list of questions is asked of every interviewee, to unstructured, which is open-ended. These different techniques lead to many differences in conducting and analyzing the research data.

Quantitative data - Quantitative research is information in large amounts. This is done by collecting information from surveys of large groups. The techniques used are mail surveys, telephone surveys, internet surveys and face-to-face public surveys.

Narrowing it down

Once you have decided on the general program idea and the angle—the general context or focus of the show—you can ask other production people to help with fleshing out the details. Assume for a moment that the general idea is to do a program series on fine arts in the public schools with the angle of "Are the arts necessary to a well-rounded education?" In the organizing stage, you may have one person make a list of possible celebrity guests who advocate arts-based education and can talk about the advantages that it gives students in other areas of life.

Sound in Documentary Films

2024-03-25T10:00:50.115000Z

Sound is as important as the image. Unfortunately, this fact wasn’t realized until quite recently. Sound has always been an extremely underrated aspect of filmmaking and, consequently, sound syntax and even technology developed quite slowly compared to its visual counterpart. One of the reasons this may have happened is because the audience does not ‘read’ sound in the same way that it does the visual image. Sound is not only omnipresent but also omni-directional and this pervasiveness led to it being traditionally discounted as an important medium of film.

These days, the same pervasiveness is considered beneficial and filmmakers have learnt that sound can be manipulated effectively to enhance a film. The fact is, sound is sometimes far more effective a medium in film than the visual image. Christian Metz identified five channels of information in film: (a) the visual image (b) print and other graphics (c) speech (d) music; and (e) noise. Interestingly, three of the five channels are auditory rather than visual, giving testament to the importance of sound in any film. However, even though it’s given its due by filmmakers, fiction and documentary alike, sound is often not considered enough at the scriptwriting stage. A soundtrack can strengthen script moments and sequences and realize both space and time. In documentary, sound can be a vivid counterpart to the visual, adding to the drama and realism of the overall film. It is for this reason that the scriptwriter must incorporate sound into the script.

Normally, there are six types of sound in a film:

1. Narrative commentary / Voice over

Narration is the sound-track commentary that sometimes accompanies a visual image in a documentary. It’s also often called a ‘voice-over’ and it can be spoken by one or more off-screen commentators. The commentator can be virtually anybody, from a character in the film, the filmmaker to even someone completely unidentified, whom the audience only relates to by his/her voice. Voice-over narration has always been a very popular tool in documentaries because it is an easy and effective way to communicate verbal information in the absence of dialogue between actors. However, many filmmakers choose to do away with narration, preferring to communicate verbal information to the audience through talking heads.

2. Talking heads

The speech element of talking heads, or interviews, is an important element of the soundtrack and also an effective way to communicate information to the audience. In documentary, filmmakers often choose to discard narration completely in favour of talking heads, as they come across as more credible and in keeping with the non-fiction nature of documentary. The audience is able to identify the person talking, thus making their experience more organic for them. The filmmaker is then also able to show the interviewee talking, cut to visual images while continuing the voice of the interviewee over these images, which may support or supplement what he is saying. This provides a smooth flow of sound for the audience, who will ‘know’ the voice they are listening to and thus feel more empathy with it.

Narration and talking heads are not exclusive of each other as audio communication techniques. Even though some filmmakers prefer only using talking heads these days, many documentaries have a bit of both and they work quite well together.

3. Music

Feature films have traditionally always relied heavily on music as part of the soundtrack. Music directors and composers would create masterpieces, which sometimes carried entire visual sequences. Some films were even defined and identified by their trademark musical soundtracks. It is often said that the musical theme of the feature film Jaws (1975) created an entire generation of people afraid to swim in the ocean for fear of a shark attack. Like feature films, documentaries also use music to enhance moments and create moods and cultural flavour in the film. Background music appeals on an emotional level with the audience and increases the level of empathy with the events on screen. Music is also used to establish a particular geographical location or identify a particular community; for example, images of a rice field, accompanied by Indian folk music, easily identify the location as somewhere in India.

4. Ambiance sound

The sound that is naturally present in the atmosphere surrounding the visual image and is recorded simultaneously with it is called ambiance sound. Traditionally, this sound was referred to as ‘noise’ and speech and music were given more attention. However, as sound technology developed, filmmakers realized its importance in the construction of a complete soundtrack. More than anything else, this type of sound is essential to the creation of a location atmosphere. The environment’s sound or what is often called ‘room tone’, based on the reverberation time and harmonics of a particular location is its signature. In documentary, ambiance sound is a necessary part of the soundtrack as it establishes the film’s visual in reality and gives the audience a realization of space and time. This is invaluable when dealing with non-fictional subjects. Normally, ambiance sound is used continuously, along with other types of sound, throughout most of the documentary.

5. Sound effects

Any sound that is not speech, music or ambiance and is artificially injected into the soundtrack to enhance it is called a sound effect. This could be a natural sound like a bird chirping to a digitally created or distorted sound like microphone feedback etc. In the old days of film, sound technicians would have to create thousands of sound effects to put in a film in the absence of ambiance sound. This was needed when either the camera was unable to record sound or when shooting took place in studios, where the ambiance would have been at odds with the visuals on screen. These days, sound effects are used to enhance the film’s subject or mood, during recreations or when the required sound is missing from the recorded ambiance. For example: sounds of horses galloping, men screaming and the clang of weapons against each other could be used while showing a recreated sequence of an ancient battle; or the sound of a helicopter could be injected into a shot of a helicopter flying that was shot from too far away to catch the original ambiance.

6. Silence

It may sound odd to add the lack of sound as a type of sound element, but in the world of film, where everything is deliberate, even silence within the film means that the filmmaker has chosen to put it there.

In the days of silent films, filmmakers used to hire live orchestras to play while the film was being screened to add to their entertainment value. Today’s filmmakers have realized the power of silence. The lack of any sound over a particular moment in a film forces the audience to focus on the visual and heightens their anticipation for the moment when the something happens or when sound re-enters the picture. This is a technique used quite frequently in horror films. In documentary, the scriptwriter can use this technique when he wants the audience to hone in on the visual to such an extent that it takes them into a kind of suspended or unnatural reality. However, unless it is a silent film or silence plays a thematic role in the film, this element should be used sparingly. Too long a gap between sounds will struggle to hold audience attention.

Stages of Documentary Scriptwriting

2024-03-25T10:00:45.867000Z

The script is also, often, the most underrated aspect of the documentary process. Often, preparing a script beforehand can make the difference between a bad film and a good film. Or, at best, a good film and a great film.

There are two stages of documentary scriptwriting:

The Pre-shoot or Shooting Script
The Post-shoot Script

A pre-shoot or shooting script is like carrying a map when you set out on a road trip. It is a conceptual map for your shooting journey. It consolidates research and outlines the film’s story, providing a visual guideline for the shoot. It uses the same format and elements as a post-shoot script and can be as comprehensive or generic depending on the information available to the scriptwriter at that stage.

A shooting script should not be confused with a shot list. A shot list is a production tool which contains shot numbers, descriptions and transitions along with production details. Even though some director-scriptwriters often combine the shooting script and shot list, the two are separate entities. A shooting script rarely delves into detailed aspects of production unless integral to the story. It is more conceptual in nature; descriptive, but leaving room for interpretation.

The post-shoot script is the final version of the shooting script. This is often a modified or re-written version of the shooting script and is created between the shooting and editing processes of the documentary. The post-shoot script combines conceptual elements along with audiovisual information gathered at the production stage and may also include any new knowledge gathered along the way. It then weaves it all together into a cinematic story, which is used by the filmmaker to edit the documentary. The post- shoot script often includes descriptions of shots and actions and is quite comprehensive.

Again, the post-shoot script should not be confused with a paper-edit, which contains detailed shot and production information. Even though the two are often combined by director-scriptwriters, they are separate entities. The paper-edit is a tool for the editor to cut the footage and includes elements like time-counters, tape numbers, shot in-points and out-points etc. The script is conceptual and descriptive of action but should leave some room for creative interpretation at the editing stage.

Both the pre-shoot and post-shoot scripts are time-specific versions of the same entity. The same elements and technique can be used to create both depending on the amount of information available at that time.

A script is a guide or first battle plan, the best device for getting the film under way on the basis of the information known at the time of writing. However, in reality it is only a best-guess guide to uncharted territory. It states where you want to go and suggests what seems, initially, the best route. New possibilities may be discovered while shooting. Strange characters may turn up, and marvellous unexpected events may happen even in the best-planned film. In each case, you may need to drastically revise your thinking about both the film and the script. You may find yourself re-evaluating sequences, throwing some away, adding others, and even re-ordering some of the main acts.

Another frequent problem is that theory does not always match reality. The script that looked so appealing on paper may not work when the material is assembled. You may find, for example, that the whole rhythm of the film is wrong or that it is overloaded with information. At that point, the script must be adjusted, and again, sequences may have to be dropped, cut, or reordered. In most cases, this can be done relatively easily, and the script can be altered to accommodate the changes without damaging the essential structure and message of the film.

Film Stages (Production Process)

In order to understand the problems involved in the script, it helps to visual- ize the entire production process, which is outlined below. In a pre-scripted documentary, the film will probably go through the following stages:

1. Script development

The idea and its development
Discussion with commissioning editors, sponsors, or funding agencies
Preliminary research
Writing the proposal (often the second item)
Discussion of proposal
Agreement on budget
Research
Writing the shooting script
Acceptance and modification of script (At this point, the writer can relax slightly, but only slightly, as he or she will probably be highly involved throughout production stages as well.)

2. Preproduction (based on script)

3. Filming

4. Editing

The visual edit based on a revised editing script
Editing sound and laying in narration from an approved narration script

5. Final lab work for films or on-lining for videos

(The final order of work varies slightly when you are working in video.)

The 'Evolving' Script

What can sometimes be confusing is that the word script is used in half a dozen different ways and may mean something entirely different depending on where you are in the production. You will also hear the words treatment and outline bandied about, adding to the confusion. In reality, it is all quite simple, and the script stages proceed as follows:

The idea
The treatment, or outline
The shooting script
The editing script
The narration script

The idea. We know what that is. It is the sharp concept, the raison d’être, that underlines the whole ¤lm structure.

The shooting script. The shooting script is the approved master plan. It usually has a fairly full description of all the visual sequences and an accompanying outline of the ideas to be discussed in the sequence or some tentative narration. As its name indicates, this script also suggests to the director what to shoot and will be used to make a daily shooting plan and a proper budget. As mentioned earlier, it also helps the cameraperson de- termine what special camera and lighting provisions have to be made.

The editing script. The editing script (visuals) may be either the same as the shooting script or something radically different. Normally, the di- rector sits down with the editor after ¤lming to review the material al- ready shot (called "rushes," or "dailies"). If the director decides to drop, add, or modify a sequence, he or she will probably draw up a new script or set of notes to guide the editor. This is what is called the editing script. What must be emphasized is that during editing, the rushes, not theory, must guide the ¤lm, and this material may necessitate many departures from the original script. Hence, the occasional necessity to formulate a special editing script.

The narration script. This is not really a script but rather the ¤nal nar- ration text that has to be read over the visuals. In most current-event or biographical documentaries, the shooting script contains only a rough guide to the main ideas of the ¤lm. The writing of the exact narration is usually left until almost the end of the process, when all the visual mate- rial has been locked into place. However, even in ¤lms where a full narra- tion has been written at an early stage, it is not unusual to see major changes being made in editing, necessitating a new narration script when the editing is almost complete. (Recording and laying in the narration track is one of the last stages in the editing process.)

Shooting Schedule & Shot List

2024-03-25T10:00:52.483000Z

Shooting Schedule

A shooting schedule is a project plan of each day’s shooting for a film production. It is normally created and managed by the assistant director, who reports to the production manager managing the production schedule. Both schedules represent a timeline stating where and when production resources are used.

Script → Shot List →Shooting Schedule

When you go on a shoot, you’ll want to have a few different kinds of paper records of your ideas to guide you through the often technical and time-consuming process of getting images on tape. A storyboard is an extremely valuable tool, if you have time to make one. If you don’t make a storyboard, at the very least you need to create a shot list — a version of the script that breaks down the story into a series of shots, and describes each in simple notation of scale and subject. The shot list included here uses arrows down the right side to indicate nonconsecutive shots that can and should be filmed in continuous takes — that is, the director plans to cutaway briefly to a reaction and then return to the same image, so there’s no reason to stop the camera. The function of the shot list during the shoot is that it allows the filmmaker to quickly place the particular shot being recorded into the larger narrative context of the production.

Since it is extremely inefficient to shoot a story in the order the shots appear in the final production — if a dialogue scene cuts back and forth between two people, you’d have to keep resetting the tripod and lighting over and over, repeating all your tech labor after each little snippet — films are always shot out of sequence, organized in a way to get as many of the same kind of shot in a single setup as possible. Do all the shots from one side of scene at once; do all the shots in the same location at once, no matter if some come at the very beginning of the story and some at the very end.

This requires preplanning: the goal being to arrange the shoot so that it requires the least amount of repetitive labor — a big make-up change is more complicated than a camera set-up, so that would take priority, and so on.

One thing that is recommended, is adding to a note about continuity — how you get will need to get into or out of a shot in editing. Indicate where you may have a Match-On-Action planned by noting ‘MOA’; make notes on where the screen direction of eye lines, exits/entrances should be at the beginning and end of shots. All of these things are very easy to forget if they’re not written down.

Post-production Editing

2024-03-25T09:57:24.557000Z

Post-production occurs in the making of audio recordings, films/movies, photography and digital art, videos and television programs. It is the general term for all stages of production occurring after the actual recording and ending with the completed work.

Post-production is in fact many different processes grouped under one name.

These typically include:

Editing the picture/visuals.
Editing the soundtrack.
Writing and recording the soundtrack music.
Adding visual special effects - mainly computer generated imagery (CGI) and digital copy from which release prints will be made.

Outline

In this article you will learn

Methods of Montage - an important term when it comes to film editing
Continuity - important aspect as well as a challenge in filmmaking
How, when and where to make a cut
Editing patterns (post-production routine)
Editing stages (from a decision making level)

Methods of Montage

In motion picture terminology, a montage (from the French for ‘putting together’ or ‘assembly’) is a film editing technique.

There are atleast three senses of the term:

In French film practice, ‘montage’ has its literal French meaning and simply identifies a movie’s editor.
In Soviet filmmaking of the 1920s, ‘montage’ was a method of juxtaposing shots to derive new meaning that did not exist in either shot alone.
In classical Hollywood cinema, a ‘montage sequence’ is a short segment in a film in which narrative information is presented in a condensed fashion. This is the most common meaning among laymen.

Emotional versus Physical Continuity

Continuity is a film term that suggest that a series of shots should be physically continuous, as if the camera simply changed angles in the course of a single event. For instance, if in one shot a beer glass is empty, it should not be full in the next shot. Live coverage of a sporting event would be an example of footage that is very continuous. Since the live operators are cutting from one live feed to another, the physical action of the shots matches very closely. Many people regard inconsistencies in continuity as mistakes, and often the editor is blamed. In film, however, continuity is very nearly last on a film editor’s list of important things to maintain. Technically, continuity is the responsibility of the script supervisor and film director, who are together responsible for preserving continuity and preventing errors from take to take and shot to shot.

The script supervisor, who sits next to the director during shooting, keeps the physical continuity of the edit in mind as shots are set up. He is the editor’s watchman. If shots are taken out of sequence, as is often the case, he will be alert to make sure that beer glass is in the appropriate state. The editor utilizes the script supervisor’s notes during post-production to log and keep track of the vast amounts of footage and takes that a director might shoot.

However, to most editors what is more important than continuity is the editing of emotional and storytelling aspects of any given film—something that is much more abstract and harder to judge. This is why films often take much longer to edit than to shoot. Emotional continuity, and the clarity of storytelling always take precedence over "technicalities". In fact, very often something that is physically discontinuous will be completely unnoticeable if the emotional rhythm of the scene "feels" right. If you were to slow down scenes from many of your favourite movies, you could easily find many minuscule physical differences from one cut to the next, which are completely hidden by the course of the emotional events.

How, when and where to make a cut

Stanley Kubrick noted that the editing process is the one phase of production that is truly unique to motion pictures. Every other aspect of filmmaking originated in a different medium than film (photography, art direction, writing, sound recording), but editing is the one process that is unique to film.

The seven ‘rules of cutting’ that a good editor should follow:

Rule 1: Never make a cut without a positive reason.
Rule 2: When undecided about the exact frame to cut on, cut long rather than short.
Rule 3: Whenever possible cut ‘in movement’.
Rule 4: The ‘fresh’ is preferable to the ‘stale’.
Rule 5: All scenes should begin and end with continuing action.
Rule 6: Cut for proper values rather than proper ‘matches’.
Rule 7: Substance first—then form.

When it comes to film editing, there are six main criteria for evaluating a cut or deciding where to cut. They are (in order of importance, most important first):

Emotion — Does the cut reflect what the editor believes the audience should be feeling at that moment?
Story — Does the cut advance the story?
Rhythm — Does the cut occur at a moment that is rhythmically interesting and ‘right’?
Eye-trace — Does the cut pay respect to ‘the location and movement of the audience’s focus of interest within the frame’?
Two-dimensional place of the screen — Does the cut respect the 180 degree rule?
Three-dimensional space of action — is the cut true to the physical/spatial relationships within the digenesis?

Editing Patterns

View Rushes and Logging

As contemporary directors shoot more footage than a cinema vérité old-timer could ever have dreamed possible, the process of viewing and logging that footage has become more laborious. Distinguish between scenes in which something actually happens, and scenes that will primarily function as b-roll over voiceover (VO). In the scenes in which something actually happens, identify the actions that are relevant to the plot, i.e., to the protagonist’s quest. Note quiet moments and close ups of character’s faces.

The Paper Edit

When editing projects that are talking-head heavy, editors often employ transcripts that are cut and pasted into a paper edit. The strength of the paper edit is that it can help organize ideas, and it is excellent tool for an essay-style film. Traditionally, documentary scripts are formatted differently than narrative scripts. You can buy software to help script your film or simply use a two-column table in word processing software like Microsoft Word. In the left-hand column type a description of the visual content and, in the right-hand column, word-for-word sound bites and narration. Some people like to put the sound bites in all caps.

Assembly

An assembly edit is your first cut, designed to clarify the film’s structure. Construct an assembly edit after ninety percent of your footage is shot, digitized, logged and you have etched a structure out on paper. This could be a paper edit, an index card outline, or a simple, preliminary timeline of your three-act structure. The chief questions that the assembly should answer are "Is there a story here?" and "Is there a film here?" For this reason, the assembly edit should be no more than 40 percent longer than the final film. If longer, it becomes difficult to assess the film’s pace and rhythm. Therefore, for a 60 minute documentary, the assembly should be no more than 84 minutes. Again, the assembly is your best first guess at structure.

Edit the assembly quickly. Sequences should be bulky—represented by two or three long unedited shots. Resist the temptation to finesse edits since fine cutting at this stage is a waste of time because you will probably change things. No need for narration, music, dissolves, cutaways, inserts, and special effects. Jump cuts are fine. It’s important to use cards for missing interviews, archival footage, etc. because those are important factors in judging structure.

After viewing the assembly, determine what characters can be dropped. Whose role is not pertinent? Whose role is repeated by a better character? Which characters work well as foils and should be kept? If you film is talk-heavy, what ideas and themes can be dropped? What scenes are not needed?

Rough Cut

Unlike the assembly cut, your rough cut will be seen and evaluated by test audiences and stakeholders. For this reason, the length should be within ten percent of the estimated final running time. For example, the rough cut for a 60-minute documentary should be 54 to 66 minutes long. That way, viewers can accurately judge the film’s structure and rhythm.

While J and L cuts (audio starting before video, or video starting before audio) with voiceover are alright, no need to finesse your edits too much. You’re likely change things and shouldn’t waste time fine-tuning scenes that may change. The rough cut is not a time to begin your audio mix but, by all means, lower distracting ambient sound. It’s very irritating to try to zone out loud ambient audio during a screening.

Include a first draft of narration as either on-screen text or a rough track narration. Include temporary music, bought or borrowed from a sound library. If you have a composer in mind, try some of their tracks, but don’t worry about cutting beats to images at this point. Credits are also unnecessary at this point.

Aim for the correct proportion of the materials that will appear in your final film: live action footage, archival, narration, reenactments, still photos, flat art, etc. If some element is missing, an interview that hasn’t been shot, for example, then use a text placeholder.

Fine Cut

Before composing the fine cut, re-screen your rushes if you have time, or at least reread your transcripts. Footage and sound bites that escaped your attention the first time around may jump out at you now that your know your structure and sequences. The film’s structure should now be in place, and for this reason the length of the fine cut should be within three percent of the final total running time. Now’s the time for including the film’s title treatment, temp music, temp narration, placeholders for every single forthcoming shot, graphic treatments, special effects (visual and audio) to make sure they work, and micro cutting.

Locked Picture

Locked picture means just that: from now on there will be no more changes to the video part of your film or to the length of your timeline.

After you lock picture, you will overlay (incorporate) the following video:

master archival material
final graphics
animation

You will lay back (incorporate) the following audio:

final composed music
final narration recording
final sound FX

Once the fine cut is complete, you are ready for what used to be called "onlining", or these days, "finishing." That means adding the final audio mix and color correction. Films with adequate budgets will frequently phase out their editorial staff and move their project to a high-end editing facility where technicians finesse the EQ, brightness, contrast and color saturation, as well as output and transfer to various tape and digital formats.

Editing stages

Typically, the post-production phase of creating a film takes longer than the actual shooting of the film, and can take several months to complete. Other film production stages include (very broadly) - financing, pre-production, writing the screenplay, rewriting the screenplay (repeat), and the actual shooting.

The Editor’s Cut

There are several editing stages and the editor’s cut is the first. An editor’s cut (sometimes referred to as the ‘assembly edit’ or ‘rough cut’) is normally the first pass of what the final film will be when it reaches picture lock.

The film editor usually starts working while principal photography (shooting) starts. In the first stage of editing the film editor will usually work alone (save for his or her own team of assistant editors, associate or co-editors and/or visual effects and music editors). Likely, prior to cutting, the editor and director will have seen and/or discussed ‘dailies’ (raw footage shot each day) as shooting progresses. Screening dailies gives the editor a ballpark idea of the director’s intentions. Because it is the first pass, the editor’s cut might be somewhat longer than the final film. The editor continues to refine the cut while shooting continues, and often the entire editing process goes on for many months and sometimes more than a year, depending on the film.

The Director’s Cut

When shooting is finished, the director can then turn his or her full attention to collaborating with the editor and further refining the cut of the film. This is the time that is set aside where the film editor’s first cut is molded to fit the director’s vision, and before the studio and/or producers are generally allowed to have input. While collaborating on what is referred to as the ‘director’s cut,’ the director and the editor go over the entire movie with a fine tooth comb; scenes and shots are re-ordered, removed, shortened and otherwise tweaked. Often it is discovered that there are plot holes, missing shots or even missing segments which might require that new scenes be filmed. Because of this time working closely and collaborating - a period that is normally far longer, and far more intimately involved, than the entire production and filming - most directors and editors form a unique artistic bond.

The Producer vs. the Director

Often after the director has had his or her chance to oversee a cut, the subsequent cuts are supervised by one or more producers, who represent the production company and /or movie studio. At times, the final cut of films produced by the major studios is the one that most closely represents what the studio wants from the film and not necessarily what the director wants. Because of this, there have been several conflicts in the past between the director and the studio, sometimes leading to the use of credit signifying ownership.

Some directors are also the producers of their films, and, with the approval of the funding studio, have a much tighter grip on what makes the final cut than other directors. Independent directors who work outside of the ‘studio system’ are usually freer to have a final cut; thus independent films often take more risks and have more creative rewards than studio films.